Mutations

• Mutations are changes of genetic material, more specifically changes within a nucleic acid like RNA or DNA
• Anything with RNA or DNA can have a mutation, including animals, plants, fungi, protists, bacteria, Archaea, and viruses
• Neutral mutation

  A mutation where the change in the DNA base does not change the amino acid coded for
• Harmful or helpful mutation

  Mutations can have negative or positive effects
• Mutations are random, the organism cannot "will" itself to get a certain mutation
• Factors that can increase mutation likelihood

  • External factors like chemicals or radiation
  • Internal factors like problems with DNA replication
• Gene mutations


  1. Change in one or more DNA bases

  2. Can affect the proteins produced and an organism's traits
• Types of gene mutations

  • Substitution
  • Insertion
  • Deletion
• Frameshift mutation

  When an insertion or deletion changes the reading frame of the genetic code, affecting all subsequent amino acids
• Chromosomal mutations


  • Duplication
  • Deletion
  • Inversion
  • Translocation
• Meiosis is a vulnerable time for mutations, as chromosomes may not separate completely (nondisjunction)
• Mutation in a protist or fruit fly


  Can be passed to offspring
• Fruit fly mutations are frequently studied
• Sickle cell anemia


  Genetic disorder caused by a mutation in the gene coding for hemoglobin, affecting red blood cell shape and oxygen transport
• Carriers of the sickle cell mutation have some protection against malaria
• Genetic counselors help families affected by genetic disorders