London

• Describe the location of London?


  London can be found in the South East of England, located on the River Thames which has been influential in its growth, and in the centre of the densest population of the UK. It also hosts the parliament of the UK. London can stake a claim to be the world's greatest city, it is certainly one of the most globalised, connected and influential places on planet earth even if it isn't the largest city by area or population size.

  
• How ahs urbanisation impacted London?


  Urbanisation:London experienced rapid urbanisation between 1800 and the 1940s. The main causes were rapid migration and high fertility due to London's location and industrialisation. London has over 8.6 million residents and is set to become a megacity in 2050.London is be classed as a global/world city due to several factors:-Connectivity:London is a transport hub to many other destinations; Europe and the world with its airport seeing more than 100,000 flights per month.-Diversity:nearly 1/3 of the city’s population is from Black, Asian or other Minority ethnic groups (BAME). Londoners speak over 300 languages and belong to at least 14 different faiths. 37% of the pop. In London were born outside of the UK.-International HQs:over 40% of the world’s foreign equities are traded here (more than New York). Over 30% of the world’s currency exchanges take place here (more than New York and Tokyo combined).-Knowledge excellence:London strengths in science, technology, and design with over 42 Higher Education Institutes (HEIs); the greatest concentration of HEIs in Europe.
• How has suburbanisation impacted London?

  Suburbanisation:began in the late 19th century because of improvements in transport with the development of the London underground, local railway stations/ tramways were being built across the Thames and away from Central London. In the early 20th century buses allowed more direct routes from the suburbs to the centre of London and so ‘Infilling’ began where London became more circular in shape and larger in area. In the Late 20th century, central London lost 16% of its pop. Due to increasing wealth and higher car ownership, which saw a growth in high to middle classes moving to the outer boroughs, leaving concentrations of low-income earners in the inner eastern boroughs. In the 1970’s new large private housing estates were being and continues today due to a rising population and high demand.
• How has counterurbanisation impacted London?


  Counter urbanisation: People want a better quality of life, without air and nose pollution. They aspire to have larger houses with more land for cheaper prices compared to London city centre prices. The Government also promoted movement through its green belt with the New Towns Act of 1946 – this restricted growth within the city boundaries and forced developers to build new towns/ commuter towns outside of the city e.g Milton Keynes 50 miles Northwest of London.
• How has global deindustrialisation impacted London?

  Global deindustrialisation:A global shift in manufacturing from cities like London in HIC to NEEs as they have cheaper wages, longer working hours and often no trade union. Mechanisation - machines take over the work of humans.
• How has deindustrialisation lead to economic change in London?

  Deindustrialisation:London Docklands – In the 1970’s the Lea Valley (north of the docklands) was the UK’s largest manufacturing area. With the closure of the London Docklands in 1980 the Lea valley was most seriously affected. Causes were globalisation – goods made cheaper elsewhere and containerisation – ships were bigger and could no longer dock in the London docks. When the docks closed, 10,000 people lost their jobs directly and it is estimated another 100,000 indirectly be. In some parts of east London, the unemployment rate was as high as 60%. Est London lost 20% of its pop. after the closure of the docks.
• How has the rise of the service economy caused economic change in London?

  Rise of the service economy:The service sector increased dramatically due to the introduction of public services, the growth of financial services and an increase in leisure time and disposable income. Since the 1980’s government-run industries were privatised, and former industrial areas such as the London Docklands were transformed into financial centres (canary Wharf).
• Why is regeneration required in parts of London?

  Large areas of derelict land (1000ha) associated with deindustrialisation. Docks had become obsolete as they were too small for modern container ships. High unemployment especially amongst unskilled former dockers. Poor quality housing owned by local authorities (83% council owned) Land contaminated from heavy industries and lack recreation and green space
• What regeneration strategies have been implemented in London?


  LDDC (London Docklands Development Corporation) created that had total control over the area (2,226ha) - non-elected and powers about local councils. Much of the area became an Enterprise Zone that received government grants and tax relief to attract new industry/ business £6.5 billion from private investment and £1.8 billion from public money
• Have regeneration projects in London been a success or failure?

  Population doubled from 40,000 to 80,000, Homes increased from 15,000 to 36,000 and private housing increased from 5% to 43%

  2.3 million m2 of office/ commercial/ industrial/ floorspace created and 41,000 more jobs and total employment doubled from 27,000 to 53,000 by 1990. Growth of jobs was in the tertiary sector especially financial and legal services.

  29km of new improved/ railway including the DLR (Docklands Light Railway - 10 mins to central London) also connecting -LCA and Underground station at Stratford opened and 130ha of green space, 100,000 new trees & 17 conservation areas including Jubilee Park

  
  

  Criticism it did not meet the needs of locals and new housing was too expensive. Jobs were not suitable (hi-tech and skilled) for the local population so many more were forced to leave due to increase cost of living. Destruction of local 'Eastenders' community. Lack of services for the elderly including hospitals.
• How do residential devlopments change across London?

  Then the inner city, characterised by terrace housing with gentrification visible in many areas and the outer city suburbia characterised by semi-detached and detached housing and more recently fortress development - Hamstead Reach in north London, set behind a gated entrance with 6 detached houses and 39 apartments. It was built in 'arts and craft's style to reflect the architecture prevalent in the rest of the garden suburb. The final Metropolitan Green belt forms a final concentric ring, defining the shape of the whole capital.
• What is London's urban form?

  Urban form has been influenced by the physical landscape, urban process and urban change highlighted in those boxes. London has a complicated topography that can be broken down into three patterns. 1) The Thames divides the historical north from the residential and conventional south. 2) London differs from east to west. The East End is known as the labouring district where much of its manufacturing, shipping and heavy haulage took place, whereas the West End is known for its affluence and leisure. This divide began to diminish in the 20th century as port and manufacturing activity declined and was replaced by white-collar work and residents (closing of the London Docklands and LDDC regeneration). 3) simple centric ring pattern that reflects the historical phases of London's growth. Centre of London - known to visitors for its shops, offices and public buildings.
• What changes have been made to transport in london to increase Sustainability?

  Transport:29km of new improved/ railway including the DLR (Docklands Light Railway – 10 mins to central London) also connecting -LCA and Underground station at Stratford opened. Crossrail link/ Elizabeth Line (central section opening 2022 and then fully in 2023? – originally due to open 2018) ↑ rail-based capacity by 10% - reduce commuting/ ease congestion/ encourage regeneration/ ↑ mobility.Congestion Charge introduced in 2003 & ULEZ (see above). ‘Boris bikes’ helped to ↑cycling by 173% since 2001
• What changes have been made to the way waste is managed in London to make the city more sustainable?

  Waste:The London waste management strategy is aiming tobe a zero-waste city. By 2026 no biodegradable or recyclable waste will be sent to landfill, and by 2030, 65 per cent of London’s municipal waste will be recycled.
• How does London's green space increase Sustainability?

  Green Spaces:40% of London is green space, making London the greenest city of its size in the world. LDDC created 130ha of green space, 100,000 new trees & 17 conservation areas including Jubilee Park. target to increase green cover by 5% by 2030
• How are schemes tackling air pollution in London to make the city more sustainable?

  Air pollution:London is working hard to try and protect people and clean up the air. 1952 led to the Clean Air Act 1956. More recently – greener buses, limit on taxi age, LEZ reduced CO2 emissions. ULEZ (£12.50 per day) came into effect 8/4/19. They offer a free to download app that informs people of air quality and are cleaning up London's bus fleet by making them less polluting. They have also introduced a congestion charge in central London to reduce traffic volumes.
• What organisation has been set up in order to make London a more sustainable city?


  The London Sustainable Development Commission was established in 2002 to advise the Mayor of London on making London a'sustainable world city'.
• How does the London living wage aim to adress inequality?

  Living Wage:lifted 10,000 families out of poverty. 2021 = £11.05 per hour – more than 2,500 businesses pay the London Living Wage.
• How does education in London aim to adress inequality?

  Education: London Challenge initiative. London schools perform better on the whole compared to the rest of the country & have improved at a faster rate.
• How do health strategies aim to adress inequality in London?

  Health:London Mayor Health Strategy aims for all Londoners to walk/cycle for at least 20 minutes per day by 2041 to improve health and lower obesity.Equal life changes for all project’ (2012): ↑ living wage/ 4-year building scheme for affordable homes for 250,000 Londoners/ ‘London enriched’/ ‘Team London’ volunteering scheme to build stronger neighbourhoods & community cohesion.
• How do changes to governance in London aim to adress inequality and increase Sustainability?

  Governance:London Mayor role created in 2000 by the Greater London Authority Act – main powers around housing, transport and crime
• Outline what the bedZed development is?

  Beddington Zero Energy development (BedZED) - sustainable housing development 3km north-east of the town of Sutton. Consists of 82 houses, 17 apartments and 1405m2 of workspace. Designed to create zero carbon emissions, building materials were either recycled or renewable and were sourced locally with 50 miles of the site.
• What features does the BedZed devlopment have to increase sustainability?

  . There are 777 m2 of solar panels and the houses were arranged to be south facing to maximise the heat from the sun. Sunspaces created to provide an additional layer of natural insulation and heating source (although in practice these are not so successful). Extra heating is provided by a centralised heating plant, which uses off-cuts from tree surgery waste to help reduce overall energy consumption. Green roofs are used to further insulate the housing, and to provide spaces for residents to grow their own produce.
• Evaluate the success of the Bedzed development?

  The development produces an estimated 37% less carbon dioxide from gas and electricity than the average development of an equivalent size. Rainwater is collected and reused and water consumption has been reduced by 50%. A Key social aim was to provide affordable housing and half of the homes are for shared home ownership or low-cost rent.
• How many people live in temporary accommodation in London?

  Housing:48,000 households in temporary accommodation. This shows evidence of social segregation.
• How does the London transport system cause inequality?

  Transport:Some have lengthy commutes on buses as they cannot afford tube fares
• How do language barriers and differences between ethnic groups show inequality and social segregation in London?

  Language:barriers lead to segregationEthnicity:Lack of spread of one nationality from a densely populated area = less people climb the ‘social ladder of wealth’. Distinctive patterns of ethnicity found throughout the majority of London. Perceived to be multi-cultural
• What evidence of poor health in London demonstrates the inequality and social segragtion in the city?

  Health:poor twice as likely to die from chronic lower respiratory illness. Difference between the highest and lowest healthy life expectancy is 15.7 years (female) and 16.1 years (male)
• What evidence of high crime rates shows the social segragation in London?

  Crime:1/3 more crimes reported 2018-19 in most income-deprived areas. Fear and perceptions of gang violence -drugs/weapons offences are over 3 times more prevalent than in the 10% least-deprived areas
• How does attainment gaps in education show inequality in London?

  Education:In the boroughs with the lowest GCSE results, 38% of children grow up impoverished, compared to 13% in the better-off areas
• What evidence shows that some areas of London have a high unemployment rate?

  Employment:Rate (2017) Tower Hamlets – 65%, Sutton 82% (England 74%)Unemployment: 3.1% in Richmond & 7.7% in Barking and Dagenham700,000 jobs under the London Living Wage
• What evidence shows that gentrification has occurred in London?

  Gentrification:Notting Hill has high levels of economic well-being, with large Victorian villas selling for more than £10 millionHighest levels of wealth – inner boroughs in the west e.g. KensingtonPoorest levels of wealth – inner boroughs in the east e.g. Tower Hamlets
• What evidence shows that London is the most unequal city in the UK?

  Most unequal in the UK: Kensington some earn £41 per hour, other £12 per hourHas 16% of the poorest decile and 17% of the richest decile nationallyRichest 10% own 60% of the total assetsTop tenth of employees earn 4.5x as much as the bottom tenth. Increased in the last decade and is the highest in England2015: 27% of the population were living in poverty (after housing costs) & Fairness Commission - For every £1 earned by the bottom 10%, the top 10% earned £1721980: 15% rich & 30% poor.2010:27% rich & 36% poor = gap widening/ more polarised
• What evidence suggests that air pollution is a problem in London?

  Air pollution:causes 9000 deaths annually. Public Health England found 5.3% of all deaths in people aged over 25 are linked to air pollution. Highest % in London, worst being Kensington & Chelsea and Westminster -8.3%.‘Pea-souper’ smog e.g. 1952 led to the Clean Air Act 1956. More recently – greener buses, limit on taxi age, LEZ reduced CO2 emissions in particular. ULEZ (£12.50 per day) came into effect 8/4/19.NO2 levels still exceed EU legal limits – 24% of primary schools in areas that surpass NO2 limits. Air pollution higher than surrounding rural areas
• What evidence shows that the urban heat island has an impact on London's climate?

  UHI:Centre is 10° warmer. Predicted to get worse in summer = threat to home/ workplaces/ public transport. Negative impact on health, particularly vulnerable people. ↑ consumption of water & energy.
• What evidence suggests that flooding is a problem in London?

  Flooding:(tidal/ fluvial/ surface/ sewer/ groundwater), 15% of London on a floodplainClimate change = wetter winters & more frequent intense rainfall. Combined with rising sea levels and tidal surges = major threat to London
• What evidence shows that their is lack of greenspace in London?


  Greenspace:Roughly 47% of Greater London is ‘green’(although only 20% of that is made up of publicly accessible parks), 33% of London is natural habitats within open space according to surveyed habitat information and an additional 14% is estimated to be vegetated private, domestic garden land. 22% of Greater London (34,817 hectares) is designated as Green Belt. In November 2019 the Greater London Authority (GLA) reported that London has the lowest levels of green space availability in all the UK. The target to increase green cover by 5% by 2030.
• What evidence shows that waste is a problem London is facing?


  Waste:Around 7m tonnes of waste is produced each year from London homes, public buildings, and businesses. This is estimated to grow by 1 million tonnes each year. England’s average recycling rate is 43% recycling rate, and for London, it is close to 33%. Newham has the worst recycling rate not just in London but the whole of England (14%). The London waste management strategy is aiming tobe a zero-waste city. By 2026 no biodegradable or recyclable waste will be sent to landfill, and by 2030, 65 per cent of London’s municipal waste will be recycled.
• How does the River Thames contribute to London's biodiversity?

  River Thames:100 years ago, 0 fish. Now over 125 species. 2017 – Thames water fined £20 million for pumping 1.5 billion litres of sewage waste into the river.
• What evidence shows that London is a culturally diverse city?


  ‘World under one roof’Function as a port = long history of immigration e.g. Windrush in 1948 = rich ethic and cultural diversity2011 census:White British (45%) & other White (15%) = 60%, Indian, Pakistani, Mixed heritage, Bangladeshi, Black African, Black Caribbean all between 3-7%, Other – 12%.2015:- 44% were BME, over 50% by 2038. However, the distribution is very uneven within the city. Those of the same ethnicity often living in together50 diasporas with populations >10,000 / 300 languages spoken