CC Part I

• Blood


  Made up of formed elements and fluid portion
• Blood is 7-8% of the total body weight
• Average Blood Volume


  • Males = 5-7L
  • Females = 4-6L
• Too LOW Blood

  Heart pumps blood to distribute oxygen and nutrients to the different cells of the body, LOW Blood = LOW nutrients → insufficient amount of oxygen = LESS distribution of oxygen in the body → the heart will start to beat faster
• Too MUCH/ HIGH Blood

  Transfusion-Associated Circulatory Overload (TACO) - transfusion-associated circulatory overload, "iatrogenic transfusion reaction" → caused by the physician, Remedy: 1. Diuretics 2. Therapeutic Phlebotomy (removal of blood)
• Too much blood

  Can cause overload in the kidneys, Too much blood = kidney may become overloaded, Smallest functional unit of kidneys = NEPHRON, Each kidney = 1.0-1.5M of nephrons, Too much blood is flowing to the kidneys = injury to the nephrons → kidney failure (nephropathy)
• Formed elements

  45% of blood
• Fluid portion


  55% of blood, known as plasma or serum
• Plasma


  Fluid portion of the unclotted or anticoagulated blood, Fibrinogen is present
• Serum

  Fluid portion of clotted or non-anticoagulated blood, Fibrinogen is absent
• Fluid portion of blood is made up of 90% water and 10% solutes
• Solutes measured in chemistry include CHO, lipids, CHON, enzymes, NPNs, TDM, toxic substances, tumor markers, vitamins, electrolytes, trace elements, bilirubin, etc.
• Photometry


  Measurement of light, Most commonly used instrument in clinical chemistry
• Light


  A form of energy that travels in waves, has peak, trough, amplitude and wavelength
• Wavelength


  Distance between two consecutive peaks of the light, Expressed in nanometers (nM), Inversely proportional to energy
• Light follows the Law of Conservation of Mass and Energy, Energy is convertible, Light is convertible
• Conversion of Light

  • Light → Electrical Energy (e.g. solar panels, photodetector)
  • Light → Heat Energy (e.g. light bulbs, oven toaster)
• Wavelength is inversely proportional to energy, There is a need to establish the relationship between energy and the wavelength of light
• It is complicated to measure light because there are many types of light and many things to do with light
• Spectrum/ Range of Light

  • y-ray
  • x-ray
  • UV
  • Visible light
  • IR
  • microwave
  • radio waves
• Visible Light/ White Light


  Can be seen by the normal (naked) human eye, Range of 400-700 nm (or 380-720 nm), Arrangement of colors according to their nanometer: Violet → highest energy, shortest wavelength, Red → lowest energy, longest wavelength
• Invisible Light

  Light not seen by the normal human eye, Light less than 400 nm (ultraviolet, x-rays, gamma rays), Light more than 700 nm (infrared, microwaves, radiowaves)
• Caraway Method


  Test for URIC ACID DETERMINATION, Reagent: Phosphotungstic Acid, Wavelength: 650 nm- 700 nm or 660 nm
• Enzymatic Method

  Test for URIC ACID ANALYSIS
• Ultraviolet (UV) light

  Shorter than violet light (400 nm)
• 1. rays

  Shorter than UV light
• Gamma rays

  Shorter than X-rays
• Infrared (IR) light

  Longer than 700 nm (bigger than red)
• Microwaves

  Longer than infrared
• Radiowaves

  Longer than microwaves
• Spectrum/Range of Light


  • Gamma Rays
  • X-Rays
  • Ultraviolet
  • Visible Light
  • Infrared
  • Microwaves
  • Radiowaves
• Visible light

  • 400 nm - 700 nm
• Infrared (IR) light

  • 700 nm - 0.3 cm
• Gamma rays have the highest energy and shortest wavelength
• Radiowaves have the lowest energy and longest wavelength
• Caraway Method

  1. Test for uric acid determination

  2. Reagent: Phosphotungstic Acid

  3. Positive result: Tungsten blue/blue

  4. Wavelength: 650-700 nm or 660 nm

  5. Uses visible light source
• Enzymatic Method

  1. Test for uric acid analysis

  2. Reagent: Uricase

  3. Wavelength: 290-293 nm

  4. Uses UV light source
• Dubowski Method


  1. Other names: Condensation Method, Ortho-toluidine Method

  2. Test for glucose analysis

  3. Reagent: Ortho-toluidine Blue

  4. Positive result: Bluish green/green

  5. Wavelength: 620-630 nm

  6. Uses visible light source
• Positive result in the Dubowski method is green
• LDH Method


  1. Reversible reaction

  2. Forward reaction (Wacker Method): Lactate to Pyruvate

  3. Reverse reaction (Wroblewski LaDue Method): Pyruvate to Lactate

  4. Both reactions for NAD/NADH determination

  5. Wavelength: 340 nm

  6. Uses UV light source