Reproductive

• Urolithiasis


  Hard deposits of minerals and salts forming within the urinary tract
• Urolithiasis


  • Diet, excessive body weight, medical conditions, supplements, medications
  • Stones form when urine becomes concentrated
  • Stones can affect any part of the urinary tract
• Pelvic Inflammatory Disease

  • Infection,
  • sexually transmitted bacteria,
  • can be asymptomatic,
  • can lead to infertility,
  • can lead to chronic pelvic pain
• Endometriosis

  Endometrium (womb lining tissue) implants and grows in places other than the uterine cavity, affect women of any age, long term condition, significant physical, emotional and social impact
• Abnormal Uterine Bleeding

  Bleeding between monthly periods, prolonged bleeding, extremely heavy period, various causes, menorrhagia: excessive and/or prolonged menstruation, metrorrhagia: excessive, prolonged and/or irregular bleeding unrelated to menstruation
• Female Infertility

  Couple cannot conceive, multiple causes, medical, psychological and social repercussions
• Urinary Incontinence

  Loss of bladder control, leaking urine, most often during aging, various types and causes, treatable, physical, emotional, social repercussions
• Urinary Infection

  Various causes, most usual: faecal bacteria, women's urethra is shorter than men, increasing likelihood of infection ascention
• Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia


  (Noncancerous) enlargement of the prostate gland, increase in cell numbers, benign, more frequent in the West than East, more common in black people than in white people, aging, various hormonal and other mechanisms
• Symptoms of kidney stones

  • Serve back pain
  • Vomitting
  • Fever
  • Painful urination
  • Urinary infection
  • Blood in urine
  • Frequent urge to urinate
  • Passing small amounts of urine
• risk factors of kidney stones

  • Genetics
  • Overweight
  • Not drinking enough fluids
  • Medications
  • foods
• Symptoms of pelvis inflammatory disease 


  • Aching in the lower back
  • Excess vaginal discharge with a foul odor
  • Pain or bleeding during or shortly after sex
  • fever
• Risk Factors for pelvic inflammatory disease

  • untreated vaginal or cervical infections
  • Unprotected sex
  • STI
  • Multiple sexual partners
  • Intrauterine device
  • Vaginal douching
  • Age 15-25
• Complication of pelvic inflammatory disease

  • Can result in infertility
  • eptopic pregnancy
  • Chronic pelvic pain
  • Tubo-ovarian abscess
  • perohepatitis
  • sepsis
  • peritonitis
• Causes of Chronic pelvic pain

  • Pelvic inflammatory disease
  • Painful bladder syndrome
  • Irritable bowel syndrome
  • Adhesions
  • Nerve entrapment/ musculoskeletal
  • Endometriosis
  • pain where there is no cause
• Signs and Symptoms of Endometriosis

  • Sharp, deep pain during ovulation, sexual intercourse, bowel movements, and/or urination
  • Heavy, painful periods or bleeding in between periods
  • Indigestion, diarrhoea, constipation and nausea
  • Fatigue
  • Infertility
  • Sciatica during menstruation
• Pathophysiology of endometriosis

  Menstrual endometrium implants on other pelvic structures

  Undifferentiated cells of peritoneal cavity differentiate into endometrial cells during foetal development

  Endometrial tissue transported through bloodstream or lymphatics
• Structural causes of abnormal uterine bleeding (PALM)

  • Polyp
  • Adenomyosis
  • Leiomyoma
  • Malignancy
• Non-Structural Causes of abnormal uterine bleeding


  • Coagulopathy
  • Ovulatory
  • Endometrial
  • Iatrogenic
  • No other wise classified
• Causes of female infertility

  • Extreme stress, eating disorder, excessive exercise, intracranial tumour or hyperprolactinemia
  • polycystic ovary syndrome
  • Premature ovarian insuffiency
  • Damage in germ cells
  • Age-related changes to quality of granulosa cells surrounding oocyte
  • Clamydial or gonorrhoeal pathogens
  • previous tubal or ectopic pregnancy surgery
  • Endometriosis
  • congenital malformations or trauma
  • uterine leiomyomata or polyp
  • intrauterine procedures
• Type of urinary incontinence

  Stress Incontinence

  Urge Incontinence

  Mixed incontinence

  Temporary Incontinence
• Stress Incontinence 


  If you. Leak during activities like coughing, laughing, sneezing, or exercising
• Urge Incontinence 


  If you leak urine after a strong, sudden urge to urinate
• Mixed incontinence 


  a mix of stress and urge incontinence
• Temporary Incontinence


  You may have an illness like a UTI that causes frequent and sudden urination
• Pathophysiology of UTI

  • Colonisation - of the periurethral area and ascends through the urethra upwards towards the bladder
  • Uroepithelium penetration - fimbra allow bladder epithelial cell attachment and penetration. Following penetration, bacteria continue to replicate and may for biofilms.
  • Ascension - bacteria may ascend on the ureter to the kidneys
  • Pyelonephritis - infection of parenchyma causes an inflammatory response.
  • Acute kidney injury - if the inflammatory cascade continues, tubular obstruction and damage occur, leading to oedema.
• common symptoms of lower urinary tract infection

  • Burning and painful urination
  • Constant urge to urinate
  • Cloudy urine
  • Foul odour
  • Pelvic pain
• Symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia

  Improved urinary outflow

  Decreased progression of lower urinary tract symptoms

  Improved lower urinary tract symptoms

  Analgesia and decreased prostatic inflammation

  Dribbling, incomplete bladder emptying

  Voiding symptoms - hesitancy, weak stream, intermittency, straining

  Storage Symptoms - urgency, nocturi, incontinence and frequency
• Complications of benign prostatic hyperplasia

  Hydronephrosis

  Acute or chronic renal injury

  Hematuria

  Urinary retention

  UTI and bladder stones