BME - FINALS

• Motivation


  The processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal
• Motivation


  • The forces within a person that affect his/her direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior
  • The process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior

  
• Three key elements of motivation

  • Intensity - describes how hard a person tries
  • Direction - the point toward which the effort is channeled
  • Persistence - a measure of how long a person can maintain effort
• Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Abraham Maslow)


  • Best-known theory of motivation
  • Hypothesizes that within every human being there is a hierarchy of five needs
  • As each need becomes substantially satisfied, the next one becomes dominant

  
• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs


  • Physiological
  • Safety-security
  • Social-belongingness
  • Esteem
  • Self-actualization
• Recently, a sixth need has been proposed for a highest level—intrinsic values—which is said to have originated from Maslow, but it has yet to gain widespread acceptance
• Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)


  • A theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction
  • Also called motivation-hygiene theory
  • The opposite of "satisfaction" is "no satisfaction," and the opposite of "dissatisfaction" is "no dissatisfaction"
  • The factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction
• Motivation factors (factors contributing to job satisfaction)

  • Achievement
  • Recognition
  • Work itself
  • Responsibility
  • Advancement
  • Possibility of growth
• Maintenance or hygiene factors (factors contributing to job dissatisfaction)

  • Company policy and administration
  • Supervision
  • Relationship with supervisors
  • Work conditions
  • Salary
  • Relationship with peers
  • Personal life
  • Status
  • Security
• McClelland's Theory of Needs (David McClelland)


  • A theory that states achievement, power, and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation
  • As opposed to, say, Maslow's hierarchy, these needs are more like motivating factors than strict needs for survival

  
• Three needs in McClelland's Theory

  • Need for achievement (nAch) - the drive to excel, to achieve in relationship to a set of standards
  • Need for power (nPow) - the need to make others behave in a way they would not have otherwise
  • Need for affiliation (nAff) - the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
• ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)


  • Clayton Alderfer developed Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs into a three-factor model of motivation known as the ERG model
  • In this model the letter E, R, & G each stand for a different human need: existence, relatedness and growth
  • The ERG model is a content theory of motivation

  
• Content Theories


  • Motivation theories which focus on the factors that motivate people
  • These theories assume that needs lead to behavior
  • To motivate employees, the organization should satisfy their needs
• Four important content theories

  • Hierarchy of Needs of Abraham Maslow
  • ERG Theory of Clayton Alderfer
  • Two-factor Theory of Frederick Herzberg
  • Theory of Needs of David McClelland
• Process Theories


  • Concerned with the process by which factors that motivate interact to produce motivation
  • Process theories take this complexity into account
  • These theories focus on the cognitive processes in which people engage to influence their behavior
• Three important process theories of motivation

  • Goal-Setting Theory of Edwin Locke
  • Expectancy Theory of Victor Vroom
  • Equity Theory of Stacy Adam
• Contemporary theories of motivation have one thing in common: Each has a reasonable degree of valid supporting documentation
• Self-Determination Theory (Richard Ryan and Edward Deci)


  • A theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation
  • Proposes that people prefer to feel they have control over their actions, so anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity will undermine motivation

  
• Cognitive Evaluation Theory


  • A complementary theory hypothesizing that extrinsic rewards will reduce intrinsic interest in a task
  • A version of self-determination theory that holds that allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation if the rewards are seen as controlling
• Self-concordance


  The degree to which people's reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values
• Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)


  • A theory that says that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance
  • Reveals the impressive effects of goal specificity, challenge, and feedback on performance
  • Intentions to work toward a goal are considered a major source of work motivation
• Factors managers should address to effectively set goals for employees

  • Goal specificity - Specific goals increase performance
  • Goal difficulty - Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals
  • Goal commitment - Employees must accept and believe he/she can achieve the goals and want to achieve it
• Three personal factors that influence the goals–performance relationship

  • Goal Commitment
  • Task Characteristics
  • National Culture
• Promotion focus


  A self-regulation strategy that involves striving for goals through advancement and accomplishment
• Prevention focus


  A self-regulation strategy that involves striving for goals by fulfilling duties and obligations
• Management by Objectives (MBO)


  A program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress
• Self-Efficacy Theory (Albert Bandura)


  • Also known as social cognitive theory or social learning theory
  • Refers to an individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task
  • The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed
• Four Ways to Increase Self-Efficacy

  • Enactive mastery - gaining relevant experience with the task or job
  • Vicarious modeling - becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task
  • Verbal persuasion - becoming more confident when someone convinces us that we have the skills necessary to be successful
  • Arousal - an energized state, so we get "psyched up," feel up to the task, and perform better
• Pygmalion effect


  A form of self-fulfilling prophecy - believing in something can make it true
• Reinforcement Theory (B.F. Skinner)


  • A theory that says that behavior is a function of its consequences
  • It suggests that reinforcement conditions behavior and that behavior is environmentally caused
• Operant conditioning theory


  Argues that people learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they don't want
• Behaviorism


  A theory that argues that behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner
• Social-Learning Theory


  • The view that we can learn through both observation and direct experience
  • It assumes behavior is a function of consequences—it also acknowledges the effects of observational learning and perception
• Processes that determine their influence on an individual

  • Attentional processes - People learn from a model only if they notice and pay attention to the model's important features
  • Retention processes - People must be able to remember what they have observed
  • Motor reproduction processes - People must be able to translate the observations into actual behavior
  • Motivational processes - People will be more motivated to emit the behavior if they receive a valued outcome for doing so
• Pygmalion effect


  A form of self-fulfilling prophecy – believing in something can make it true
• Reinforcement theory (B.F. Skinner)


  A theory that says that behavior is a function of its consequences
• Social-learning theory


  The view that we can learn through both observation and direct experience
• Processes that determine the influence of social-learning theory on an individual

  1. Attentional processes

  2. Retention processes

  3. Motor reproduction processes

  4. Reinforcement processes
• Equity theory/organizational justice


  A theory that says that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities

  
• Choices of employees who perceive inequity

  • Change inputs
  • Change outcomes
  • Distort perceptions of self
  • Distort perceptions of others
  • Choose a different referent
  • Leave the field