Chemical Physiology

• characteristics of life

  1. cellular organization
  2. requires material and energy
  3. growth and development
  4. homeostasis
  5. responds to stimuli
  6. evolutionary history
  7. reproduce
• mitosis

  • prophase
  • metaphase
  • anaphase
  • telophase
• meiosis

  • meiosis 1
  • prophase 1
  • metaphase 1
  • anaphase 1
  • telophase 1
  • meiosis 2
• polymer is a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical blocks linked by covalent bonds
• monomers are the building blocks of polymers
• condensation reaction connects monomers together
• hydrolysis disassembles polymers to monomers
• carbohydrates serves as a fuel and building material
• carbohydrates provides energy through oxidation
• monosaccharide is the simplest carbohydrates
• monosaccharides are single sugars
• disaccharides consist of two monosaccharide joined by condensation reaction
• oligosaccharides are sugars with chain containing 3 to 10 units
• polysaccharides are composed of many sugar building blocks
• monosaccharides have a molecular formula that are some multiple unit CH2O
• if the carbonyl group is at the terminal, the sugar is called aldose
• if the carbonyl group is in the middle, the sugar is called ketose
• criteria in classifying sugars

  • location of carbonyl group
  • size of carbon skeleton
  • spatial arrangement of their parts around asymmetric carbons
• sugars with six carbons are hexose
• three-carbon sugars are triose
• five-carbon sugars are called pentose
• ribose and deoxyribose are used in the synthesis of nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA
• glucose is the most important nutritionally and most abundant hexose in nature
• glucose is also known as blood sugar
• galactose is a hexose sugar with a structure similar to that of glucose with the difference being the orientation of the hydroxyl group attached to carbon 4
• fructose is the most important ketohexose
• fructose is also known as levulose
• fructose is the sweetest of the common sugars
• glycosidic linkage is a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction
• maltose is made from two glucose
• lactose is made from glucose and galactose
• sucrose is made from glucose and fructose
• maltose is found in germination grain and formed during the digestion of starch to glucose
• lactose is obtained from whey, or the watery byproduct of cheese production
• sucrose is the common household sugar
• characteristics of polysaccharides

  1. not sweet
  2. insoluble in water
  3. hydrophobic
  4. no crystal formation
  5. form white powder
  6. high molecular weight
  7. compact and cosmetically inactive
  8. consist of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen
  9. form thick colloidal dispersions when heated
• homopolysaccharides are polysaccharides that contain the same type of monosaccharides
• glycogen is made up of large chain of molecules found in animals and fungi
• cellulose comprises of long chains of glycosides and makes up the cell wall of plants
• starch is formed by the condensation of amylose and amylopectin