4.2

• Russia claimed that it did not go to war in 1914 to win territory, but rather to protect Serbia – a small state with a population of fellow Slavs – from what Russians believed to be the unreasonable and warlike demands of Austria-Hungary
• Austria-Hungary believed that Russia was using Serbia to extend its influence in the Balkans and to benefit from the possible future break-up of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
• The July 1914 crisis, which led to the outbreak of war, was triggered by the assassination of the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, on a state visit to Bosnia
• Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the killing, and presented its government with an ultimatum
• Germany declared war on Russia after the latter went to the aid of Serbia
• Russia's wartime weaknesses led to its inability to manage the pressures of war, which was to lead to its downfall
• The Russian military had made some improvements by the start of the conflict, but its military planning was deficient in important respects
• Defeat at Tannenberg in August 1914 showed the superiority of German forces in terms of weaponry, tactics and speed
• The human cost of the war steadily mounted for Russia, as well as its cost in resources
• Military losses had a drastic impact on the civilian population, causing an enormous displacement of population
• Russia's major problem during the First World War was a lack of organisation, with the needs of the military given priority on the railways at the expense of the civilian population
• The fundamental problem was that Russia was not prepared for a long war, leading to runaway inflation and unrest among the lower classes and the Duma
• Nicholas II's decision to go to the front to take personal charge of his armies was a fatal mistake, as he had no military skill or training and his absence from court left a power vacuum in Russia
• The tsarina, Alexandra, was left in charge of the government in the absence of her husband, but she was incapable of exercising power effectively
• The Austro-Hungarian army in western Ukraine was pushed back when the Germans sent support, and Russian forces sustained almost a million casualties. After this, Russia was never able to mount an effective attack on its enemies.
• The growing criticism of the regime from the Duma after it met again in November 1916 signalled an increasing willingness on the part of progressive politicians to offer open opposition to the regime.
• The tsarina, Alexandra


  She was left in charge of the government in the absence of her husband, but she was incapable of exercising power effectively. As a woman, she found she had little power or influence over traditionally minded ministers.
• Grigori Rasputin


  A self-professed healer who seemed able to calm the young tsarevich, Alexei, during his frequent periods of illness. This made him a great favourite of the tsar's wife in particular. However, Rasputin's lowly origins and lack of education meant he was despised by members of the royal court, and many grew concerned over the influence he seemed to have on the tsar and tsarina.
• Rasputin was murdered in December 1916 – not by political radicals striking a blow against the monarchy, but by a group of conservative courtiers who wanted to save the tsar's reputation.
• The collapse of the Russian war effort was an immediate cause of the fall of Nicholas II in February 1917.
• Industrial workers' grievances in early 1917

  • Food shortages
  • Desire for an end to the war
• Events leading to the abdication of the tsar

  1. Workers at the Putilov steel works went on strike on 18 February

  2. Other workers followed, and on 23 February, thousands of women demonstrated in the streets on International Women's Day

  3. Many front-line soldiers began to abandon the war effort

  4. Soldiers drifted back to their homes in large numbers

  5. Soldiers refused to restore order and opened fire on officers

  6. Even the Cossacks turned against Nicholas

  7. Radical Duma members formed a provisional committee

  8. The Petrograd Soviet of soldiers, sailors and workers was established

  9. Nicholas decided to return to Petrograd but was persuaded to abdicate

  10. Nicholas nominated his brother, Grand Duke Michael, as his successor, but Michael was not willing to accept the throne
• The Bolsheviks played no real part in the downfall of the tsar. Most of the key figures were out of the country and were taken by surprise by events in Petrograd.
• The regime collapsed because those who might have been expected to defend it, in particular the senior military figures, failed to do so. Their assessment was that the situation was hopeless by late February and that Nicholas must step down.
• The deeper reason for the end of the tsarist system was the way in which prolonging the war tested Russia's economy, transport system, political institutions and armed forces to the point of destruction.
• Provisional Government


  The new government that was formed after the abdication of the tsar, consisting mainly of liberals with a small number of socialists, but no members of the Bolshevik Party.
• Provisional Government


  • It tried to restore stability and to continue the war, but was unable to fulfil these objectives and was swept away in the October Revolution following the seizure of power by Lenin's Bolshevik Party.
  • It had two prime ministers: Prince Georgy Lvov, a moderate reformer, and Alexander Kerensky, a leading member of the Social Revolutionary Party.
• Weaknesses of the Provisional Government

  • It had developed from a committee of the Duma, an institution whose popular credibility had been seriously undermined
  • It was obliged to share power with the Petrograd Soviet, which claimed to speak for workers and soldiers
• The Petrograd Soviet was not actually hostile to the Provisional Government and was not initially dominated by the Bolsheviks. The two bodies cooperated on a number of reforms.
• The existence of the Petrograd Soviet potentially presented a challenge to the government's authority, as it stated that it would obey the orders of the Military Commission of the State Duma only if they did not clash with its own decrees.
• The government's failure to redistribute land to the peasants and its attempt to continue an unpopular war condemned it to eventual disaster.
• The Russian army was poorly equipped, trained and led
• Germany had an alliance with Austria-Hungary which meant that Russia would have to fight both countries at the same time
• Russia's reasons for entering WWI

  To protect Serbia, a small Slavic state, from Austria-Hungary's demands
• Austria-Hungary believed


  Russia was using Serbia to extend its influence in the Balkans and benefit from the possible future break-up of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
• The July 1914 crisis, which led to the outbreak of war, was triggered by the assassination of the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand
• Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the killing, and presented its government with an ultimatum
• Germany declared war on Russia after the latter went to the aid of Serbia
• Russia's decision to go to war with both Austria-Hungary and Germany was unwise given its major weaknesses
• Russia's military


  • Had made some improvements by the start of WWI
  • But was still deficient in important respects like relying on ineffective cavalry and bayonet charges