Memory

• Encoding


  Transform physical, sensory input
• Storage


  Retain encoded information
• Retrieval


  Gain access to stored memory
• Short-term storage


  Primarily acoustic, secondary semantic encoding
• Long-term storage


  Primarily semantically encoded
• Semantic


  Meanings of words
• Transfer of information to long-term memory


  Consolidation dating new to stored information
• Metamemory strategies


  • Rehearsal (repeated recitation)
  • Organization of information
• Rehearsal-practice effects


  Elaborative and Maintenance Rehearsal
• Pictorial

  Concrete, spatial
• Memory 3 common operations

  1. Encoding (transform physical, sensory input)

  2. Storage (retain encoded information)

  3. Retrieval (gain access to stored memory)
• Forms of encoding


  • Acoustic (hearing)
  • Semantic (meanings of words)
• Short-term storage


  Primarily acoustic, secondary semantic encoding
• Long-term storage


  Primarily semantically encoded
• Transfer of information to long-term memory

  1. Consolidation (adding new to stored information)

  2. Metamemory strategies (reflecting memory to improve)

  3. Rehearsal (repeated recitation)

  4. Organization of information
• Elaborative encoding


  Adds new information into long-term memory
• Maintenance rehearsal


  Repetitiously rehearse and maintain information in short-term memory
• Distributed practice


  Tends to be good for memory
• Massed practice (cramming)


  Not so good for memory
• REM sleep patterns reduce the amount of improvement on a dictation task
• Good night's sleep (REM stage) aids in memory consolidation
• Mnemonic devices


  • Interactive images
  • Method of loci
  • Acronyms
  • Acrostics
  • Keyword system
• IAMPACK


  Interactive images, acronyms, method of loci, pegwords, acrostics and keywords
• Retrieval (short-term memory)


  1. Parallel processing (simultaneous handling of multiple operations)

  2. Serial processing (one after another)
• Exhaustive serial processing


  Always checks the test digit against all digits
• Self-terminating serial processing


  Checks the test digit against only those digits needed to make a response
• Availability


  Presence of information stored in long-term memory
• Accessibility


  Gaining access to the available information
• Key problems of forgetting and memory distortion

  • Interference (comparing information to forget)
  • Decay (gradual disappearance rather than displacement)
• Forgetting has the strongest effect on small amounts of information in short-term memory
• Memory is constructive in nature, affecting how we recall things
• Autobiographical memory


  Individual history (constructive)
• Memory assertions (7 sins of memory)

  • Transience (memory fades quickly)
  • Absent-mindedness (forget what is being sought)
  • Blocking (tip of the tongue)
  • Misattribution (think saw things)
  • Suggestibility (they think they remember seeing it)
  • Bias (based on their recall)
  • Persistence (consequential, inconsequential)
• Mental representation of knowledge

  • Declarative (knowing that, can be stated)
  • Procedural (knowing how)
• Proactive interference


  Learning from the past impedes learning of new material
• Serial-position curve


  Recall of a given word in order of presentation, with superior recall of words near the end (recency effect) and near the beginning (primacy effect)
• Concepts


  • Natural
  • Artificial
  • Classical