3.2

• strengths of lombroso- physiological/biological

  • first to study crime scientifically using objective measurements
  • highlights the importance of clinical and historical records
  • later works started to incorporate some (yet limited) social/environmental factors in addition to hereditary factors
  • identifies that crimes not committed through free will and thus focuses attention on prevention of offending, as opposed to punishment
• limitations of lombroso- physiological/biological

  • later research failed to support the link between facial features and criminality
  • fundamentally racist approach
  • a lack of control group
• strengths of Sheldon- physiological/biological

  • gluek and gluek found 60% of offenders in their study were mesomorphs
  • individuals who were considered the most serious delinquents possessed the most extreme mesomorphic shapes
• limitations of Sheldon- physiological/biological

  
  

  • gluek and gluek found that criminality was caused by bio-psycho-social factors
  • mesomorphic body types are developed by criminals in prison to be physically tough
  • class may be true origin of criminality. convicted offenders are often WC males
  • labelling- mesomorphs may be labelled tough guys due to physical build/ may attract more police attention
  • Sheldon does not account for endomorphs and ectomorphs who commit crime
• strengths of twin studies- genetic/biological

  
  

  • mz twins are genetically identical and thus it is logical to examine whether their criminal behaviour is identical
  • twin studies provide some support for genetic explanations. ishiwaka and Raine found higher concordance
• limitations of twin studies- genetic/biological


  • if genes were the only indicator of criminality, concordance should be 100% in MZ twins
  • higher concordance in MZ twins could be due to environment
  • mz twins are typically closer than dz twins, therefore one may influence the other
  • effects of genes cannot be isolated and measured independently
  • prior to dna testing there was not scientific confirmation that twins were in fact mz twins
• strengths of adoption studies- genetic/biological

  • address the limitations of twin studies where mz children are brought up in a shared environment
  • logical research design. allows for relative importance of nature vs nurture
  • some support for genetic explanations, showing that adoptees were more likely to have criminal records if their parents had criminal records
• limitations of adoption theories- genetic/biological

  • goffredson and hirschi argues that adoption studies demonstrates that genes have little influence in determining criminality
  • adoptees are often placed in families that share characteristics with their birth families, similar environments may produce similar behaviours
  • many children are not adopted immediately and remain with their birth families in their early years
• strengths of Jacobs XYY- genetic/biological


  • Jacob et al. found an association between xyy syndrome and offenders imprisoned for violent behaviour
  • prince and whatmore found links between xyy and property crimes
• limitations of Jacobs xyy- genetic/biological

  • doesn't prove casual relationship between xyy and violent behaviour
  • males with xyy fit the typifications of what a criminal looks like, therefore are more likely to receive custodial sentences
  • xyy males may also be over resented due to their low intelligence- skews results
  • syndrome is rare- 1 in 1000
• strengths of brain injuries, abnormalities and disorders- biological

  • in extreme cases, injuries and disease can cause major changes in personality and behaviour, including criminality
  • some correlation between abnormal EEG readings and psychopathic criminality
  • prisoners are more likely to have brain injuries than non criminals
• limitations of brain injuries, abnormalities and disorders- biological


  • crime is caused by injury and disease is rare. personality prior to injury/disease is more important
  • prisoners may have a higher likelihood of brain injuries due to their lifestyle
  • individuals who have normal EEGs can also be psychopaths. equally abnormal EEGs can be attributed to non criminal individuals
• strengths of biochemical theories- biological

  
  

  • sex hormones substance abuse and blood sugar levels can affect mood, judgement and aggression
  • testosterone levels and male offending peak at the same age
  • alcohol promotes disinhibition reducing self control resulting in criminality. crack cocaine has been linked to violence
  • biochemical factors are recognised by legal bodies (court)
• limitations of biochemical theories- biological

  • biochemical factors may predispose individuals to commit criminal behaviour, however, an environmental trigger is required
  • scarmella and brown high testosterone levels doesn't greatly affect aggression
  • schalling high testosterone levels in young males resulted in verbal aggression not physical
  • infanticide may be caused by isolation and an increased responsibility as opposed to hormones
• strengths of psychoanalytic theory- individualistic


  • theory points to the importance of early socialisation and family relationships
  • psychoanalytic theories have influenced policies concerned with tackling crime and deviance
• limitations of psychoanalytic theory- individualistic


  • there is doubt about the existence of an unconscious mind
  • psychoanalytic explanations are subjective and unscientific. they are reliant on accepting that they are able to understand the individuals unconscious mind
• strengths of bowlbys maternal deprivation theory- individualistic

  • stresses the importance of exploring the parent-child bond and how this may impact on behaviour
  • bowlbys research found that more of the delinquent youths displayed evidence of maternal deprivation
• limitations of bowlbys maternal deprivation theory- individualistic


  • study was retrospective, relying on the ability of the delinquents and their mothers to recall events from the past
  • fails to explain the delinquency of the other 61% of youths
  • in a later study, bowlby used children separated from their parents for long periods before they were 5 and these displayed no evidence of maternal deprivation
  • bowlby overestimates the importance of childhood experiences
  • link between MD and criminality is longer widely accepted (summons and putwain)
• strengths of personality theory- individualistic

  • useful in describing how some measurable tendencies could increase a persons likelihood of offending
  • offenders tend to be extraverted neurotic and psychotic and thus provides support that these have more potential to be criminal
  • Rushton and christjohn 1981- those who reported higher levels of delinquency also scored higher on E P and N
• limitations of personality theory- individualistic

  • farrington et al 1982- offenders scored higher on P N but not on E
  • hollin 1989- offenders generally show higher P and N but not E scores
  • the E scale may be measuring two different tendencies: impulsiveness and sociability. criminals ted to lack self control (impulsive) but are loners (unsociable)
  • evidence on prisoners shows a correlation between personality type and criminality, not causation
  • convicted offenders may not be typical of offenders
  • self report questionnaires may produce invalid results
• strengths of Sutherlands differential association theory- individualistic

  • the concept that crime often runs in the family supports the theory. people with criminal parents are more likely to become criminal themselves
  • juvenile delinquents tend to have friends who commit criminal or anti social acts, suggesting that they may learn their behaviour from their peer groups
  • attitudes within work groups can normalise crime
• limitations of Sutherlands differential association theory- individualistic


  not everybody who is exposed to criminal influences becomes criminal. although they might learn how to commit crime from their environment, they may never put this knowledge into practice
• strengths of skinners operant learning theory- individualistic

  • shows how reinforcement influences learning in animals. some human learning is also influenced similarly
  • jeffery states that for some individuals the rewards of crime may outweigh the punishments and thus will offend
• limitations of skinners operant learning theory- individualistic


  • based on studies conducted with animals, does not adequately explain learning of behaviours in humans, and by extension, cannot adequately explain criminality
  • theory fails to recognise internal mental processes, such as thinking, personal values and attitudes
  • reads humans as puppets and ignores free will
• strengths of bandoras social learning theory- individualistic

  • recognises that humans are social beings and that we learn through vicarious experience (that of others)
  • bandura demonstrates that negative observed behaviour, if rewarded, will be imitated
• limitations of bandoras social learning theory- individualistic

  • studies were conducted in a laboratory, not the real world and thus may not be valid
  • deterministic. it suggests that behaviour is completely determined by learning experiences and that individuals lack the free will
  • conflicts with the legal definitions of crime
  • not all observed behaviour is easy to imitate
• strengths of surveillance theories- sociological

  • use statistical information to create profiles of likely offenders in order to reduce crime
  • categorise areas as high or low risk which determines how much security and policing they are subjected to
• strengths of rational choice theory- sociological


  • can be helpful in understanding individual and collective behaviours
  • helps to explain behaviour that might be seen as irrational any type of action can be examined for underlying rational motivations
• limitations of rational choice theory- sociological 


  • doesnt account for choices that are made due to situational factors or that context dependant
  • doesnt consider how ethics and values may affect decision making
  • does not account for decisions that are self serving
  • doesnt consider how mental health issues may affect the ability to make rational choices
• strengths of durkheims functionalist theory 


  • recognised that crime can have a positive function for society, by reinforcing boundaries between right and wrong
  • highlights the interconnectedness of social structures
• limitations of durkheims functionalist theory


  • argues society needs a certain amount of deviance to function but does not specify how much is the right amount
  • whilst crime might be functional for some, it is not functional for victims
  • fails to explain social change and instability
• strengths of Merton's strain theory- sociological


  • shows how both normal and deviance behaviour arise from the same goals
  • individuals may pursue the same goals but through different means
  • helps explain parers shown in official stats
• limitations of Merton's strain theory- sociological


  • ignored the crimes of the wealthy and over predicts the amount of working class crime
  • sees deviance as purely an individual response, as opposed to group deviance
  • tends to ignore crimes that have no economic motive
• strengths of subcultural theories- sociological


  • shows how subcultures perform a function for their members by offering solutions to the problem of failing to achieve mainstream goals
  • coward and ohlin- shows how different types of neighbourhood gives rise to different illegitimate opportunities and different subcultures
• limitations of subcultural theories- sociological


  • ignores crimes of the wealthy and over predicts working class crime
  • not everyone shares the same goals in the first place- they might be attracted to crime for other reasons
  • some individuals can show characteristics of all three types: criminal, conflict and retreatism
• strengths of of labelling theory- sociological


  • shows that the law is not a fixed set of rules to be taken for granted
  • shifts the focus onto the police and how crime is based on the label applied and stereotypes shown. may explain why working class are over represented in crime stats
  • shows how attempts to control deviance triggers a deviance amplification spiral
  • highlights the role of the media in defining and creating deviance
• limitations of labelling theory- sociological


  • wrongly implies that once someone is labelled, a deviant career is inevitable
  • gives the offender a victim status- ignores the real victims
  • fails to explain primary deviance
  • more of a focus on the police as opposed to those who apply the rules
  • fails to explain why some labels are not applied to certain groups
• strengths of marxism- sociological


  • shows how poverty and inequality can cause working class crime, and how capitalism promotes greed for upper class crime
  • shows how law enforcement are bias against the working class and favour the powerful
• limitations of marxism- sociological


  • focuses on class and often ignores factors such as gender and ethnicity
  • it over predicts the amount of working class crime, not all poor people turn to crime
  • not all capitalist societies have crime rates