Social learning theory

• Albert Bandura


  The founder of social learning theory and known for his work on self-efficacy, and is also responsible for the 1961 Bobo doll experiment.
• Similarities with Behaviourist approaches

  Both involve: observing others, studying behavior and looking at the likelihood of certain behaviours happening. Plus, both use reinforcement and involve consequences
• Differences with Behaviourist approaches

  The Social Learning Theory uses reinforcement to inform, and different psychologists (and the number of) are involved.
• What did Bandura agree with the Behaviourists about?

  That much of our behavior is learned from experience.
• What different way in which people learn did the SLT propose?

  Through observation and imitation of others within a social context
• What else did the SLT suggest?

  Learning occurs directly through classical and operant conditioning but also indirectly.
• Key concepts of the social learning theory.


  Identification, model, vicarious reinforcement, imitation, direct reinforcement and mental representation
• Modelling

  In order for social learning to take place someone (a model) must display (or model) the attitude or behavior to be learned. There are two types of model: a LIVE (a parent/teacher/friend) or a SYMBOLIC (someone in the media, e.g. a TV character); these provide examples of behavior that can be observed by the individual and reproduced through imitation.
• Imitation


  Much of what a child learns is through the imitation of attitudes and behavior modeled by parents (or those closest to it). If a model is provided, whole patterns of behavior are acquired quickly, and the characteristics of the model, such as the observers' perceived ability to perform that behavior and the observed consequences of behavior determine if the behavior is imitated or not.
• Identification


  The extent to which an individual relates to a model and feels similar to that person. To do so, an observer must feel they are similar enough to experience the same outcomes in the same situation, with research suggesting children were more likely to identify with similar models, especially those of the same sex.
• Vicarious reinforcement

  Learning about likely consequences, and accordingly adjust behaviour. Bandura and Walters, in 1963, noticed children observing a model with aggressive behavior that were rewarded were more likely to imitate the model than the one punished.
• The role of mediational processes

  Bandura, in 1986, said the observer forms mental representations of the model's behavior and the consequences (in terms of expectancies of future outcomes) in order for it to take place. Upon opportunities arising, the individual may display the learned behavior provided the expectation of positive consequences is greater than that of those negative.
• Strength

  Has increased our understanding of human behavior, especially criminal.
• Case study: How has SLT increased our understanding of human behaviours?

  Akers, in 1998, suggested the probability of engagement in criminal behavior increases upon exposure to models who commit criminal acts, and then identify with them and develop an expectation of positive consequences of it.
• Case study: How has SLT increased our understanding of human behaviours?

  Ulrich, in 2003, supported the finding that the strongest cause of violent behavior amongst adolescences was an association being made with delinquent peer groups in which violence was modeled and also rewarded.
• Strength

  There is research support for identification and that observing a model similar to oneself results in more learning than the observation of a dissimilar model. Since greater identification with a model leads to more learning, it is easier to visualize self in place of the model, and so the observer feels they are having the same experience.
• Who found and what was the evidence for greater identification leading to greater learning?

  Fox and Bailenson, in 2009. They used virtual humans engaging in exercise, wherein the models looked either similar or dissimilar to the individual participants, and participants who saw the virtual model exercising engaged in more exercise in the 24 hours following the experiment than participants who viewed their virtual model merely loitering or a dissimilar model exercising
• Strength

  Attempts have been made by the media to change health-related behaviours, and have shown that models who possess similarities to the target audience have a higher chance to elicit identification and therefore greater social learning. Health campaigns have tried to match characters who model the desired behavior with the target audience, in terms of physical characteristics, attitudes and behaviours, all in an attempt to achieve the highest possible identification.
• How could media attempts to change behaviours be exemplified in an advertising campaign?

  Andsager et al, in 2006, discovered that any perceived similarity to a model in an anti-alcohol advertisement became positively related to the message's effectiveness, and researchers suggest any messages could be lost if an individual fails to or struggles with trying to identify with a model.
• Weakness

  It is difficult to determine causality, particularly of deviant behavior and its link to increased aggression. Causes of delinquency may not be social learning due to potential exposure to deviant role models, but possessing deviant attitudes before any contact with peers who are also deviant. Siegel and McCormick, in 2006, suggested any young person who possessed deviant attitude and values sought out peers with similar attitudes and behaviours, as they are more fun than any reckless counterparts.
• Weakness

  Disregards any other potential behavioural influences. E.g., in an explanation of the development of gender role behavior, social learning would argue gender specific modeling's importance, but, in reality, a child is exposed to many different influences like portrayals within the media or genetics, which is problematic for social learning as now present are difficulties to display a single particular thing as the behaviour's main cause.
• Bandura et al (1961) Bobo Doll study - Aim


  To find out if children would show more aggressive behaviour if exposed to an aggressive role model and less aggressive behaviour if exposed to a non-aggressive role model.

  
• Bandura et al (1961) Bobo Doll different IV's


  Condition one (Aggressive)

  Children observed an adult (role model) attack a five foot inflatable doll. The doll was kicked and punched and the attacker used aggressive statements such as "Punch him on the nose".

  
  

  Condition two (Non - Aggressive)

  Children observed an adult assembling a toy showing no aggression

  
  

  Condition three (Control)

  No adult model was observed

  
  

  After this first stage each child was taken to a second room filled with toys and a bobo doll.

  
  

  The child was filmed playing with the toys for 20 minutes.

  
• Bandura et al (1961) Bobo Doll Results:


  Thechildren who had observed the aggressive model (condition one) displayed higher levels of aggressive behaviourthan the other two conditions.

  Children weremore likely to directly imitate same sex role models.

  
• Bandura et al (1961) Bobo Doll Conclusions:


  Bandura concluded that behaviour can be learned by observation and imitation. Individuals are more likely to imitate role models that they identify with e.g those of the same gender.

  
  

  Supports SLT....

  +Modelling +Imitation +Identification

  
• Bandura et al (1963) - Filmed role models experiment


  Bandura studied children who observed cartoon characters instead of live observations of real life role models.

  
  

  Bandura found no significant difference between the level of imitation of live role models or filmed role models. He thought it would be less as children would identify less with a cartoon!

  
  

  Does not SLT

  - Identification

  
• Bandura et al - Rewards & punishment study


  Find out if children would be more likely to imitate a role model they see being rewarded (vicarious reinforcement) and less likely to imitate a role model they see being punished (vicarious punishment).

  
  

  Bandura found that children were much less likely to

  imitate the role model when they observed the model being punished.

  
  

  Supports SLT to explain motivation to imitate behaviour.

  
  

  Supports SLT....

  +Modelling

  +Imitation

  +Identification This research

  +Vicarious reinforcement

  +Direct reinforcement

  
• Strength - cognitive factors

  POINT: One strength of SLT is it emphasises the importance of cognitive factors

  EVIDENCE: Neither classical nor operant conditioning can offer a fully comprehensive account of human learning on their own because cognitive factors are not taken into account. Humans and animals store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions.

  EVALUATION: This shows that SLT provides a more complete explanation of human learning than the behaviourist approach by recognising the role of meditational processes.
• Counterpoint - biological factors


  POINT: However, the SLT does not take any biology into account.

  EVIDENCE: For example, recent research suggests that observational learning is controlled by mirror neurons in the brain, which allow us to empathise with and imitate other people.

  EVALUATION: This suggests that SLT may make too little reference to the influence of biological factors on social learning.
• Strength - application


  POINT: Another strength of the SLT is that it has real-world application.

  EVIDENCE: Social learning principles can account for how children learn from other people around them, as well as through the media, and this can explain how cultural norms are transmitted. Therefore, SLT has proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours such as how children came to understand their gender role by imitating role models in the media.

  EVALUATION: This increases the value of SLT as it can account for real-world behaviour.
• Limitation - Bandura's evidence


  POINT: One limitation of the SLT is that it relies too heavily on evidence from contrived lab studies.

  EVIDENCE: Many of Bandura's ideas were developed through observation of children's behaviour in lab settings. This raises the problem of demand characteristics as the artificial setting may have encouraged the children to behave as they believe was expected of them therefore reducing the study's internal validity.

  EVALUATION: This suggests that Bandura's research actually tells us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.