Relationships

• Sexual selection


  Explains why certain seemingly disadvantageous characteristics (from an evolutionary point of view) are still passed on, because these characteristics may be advantageous for sexual selection
• Sexual selection


  • Determines which genes are passed onto offspring, through the process of heredity
  • Explains why males who behave aggressively (and so have a greater chance of protecting their female from competing males) and females with characteristic traits of fertility (such as a narrow waist and large hips) are selected for
• Anisogamy


  Differences between male and female gametes, such as in size, energy invested into their production, whether they are static or mobile, and the intervals at which they are produced
• Inter-sexual selection


  The strategies that each sex uses to attract the other, the 'quality over quantity' approach favoured by females
• Intra-sexual selection


  The strategies used within sexes to attract mates, the 'quantity over quality' approach favoured by males
• Intra-sexual selection strategies


  • Males behaving aggressively and being protective of their female, being larger, possessing certain facial and physical characteristics (e.g. strong jawlines and broad shoulders)
• Differences in mating strategies and anisogamy results in dimorphism, the physical differences between the male and female sexes
• It is incorrect to assume that current reproductive patterns still have a strong evolutionary basis, rather an interactionist approach combining culture and evolution is more accurate
• Changing social and cultural norms mean that women no longer place a large emphasis on resource-availability when looking for a new partner, as they are now more financially independent
• Some sexual selection pressures like the hip to waist ratio are still relevant in modern times, as it demonstrates fertility and ability to carry children
• Females are more selective when it comes to potential mates, due to their greater energy and genetic input into the pregnancy and care for the child
• Self-disclosure


  The information we choose to reveal about ourselves within a romantic relationship, to increase intimacy, understanding and empathy
• Social penetration theory


  The process of self-disclosure allows one person to penetrate deeper into the life of their partner, thus increasing intimacy and trust
• Revealing intimate details about oneself at the beginning of a relationship may be detrimental
• Depth and breadth of self-disclosure

  Depth refers to the quality and trust within a relationship, breadth refers to the number of topics disclosed. A balance between the two is key for maintaining an intimate relationship
• High levels of intimacy and commitment within relationships are associated with the use of self-disclosure as a way to maintain it
• Correlational studies cannot establish cause and effect relationships between self-disclosure and relationship quality due to the third variable problem
• High levels of intimacy and trust are strongly associated with high levels of self-disclosure in married couples
• Halo effect


  We have a tendency to associate highly attractive people with pre-conceived disproportionately positive characteristics, including personality and wealth
• Matching hypothesis


  The key to a successful relationship is striking a balance between the attractiveness of a mate and the realistic chances of attaining such a mate
• Physical attractiveness is still an important determinant of a successful relationship, even after marriage
• The halo effect and importance of physical attractiveness varies between individuals depending on their underlying sexist beliefs
• What is considered 'attractive' is relatively consistent across cultures, including individualist and collectivist cultures
• The halo effect can influence perceptions of political candidates, with physically attractive candidates being judged as more politically-skilled, mature and trustworthy
• Filter theory of attraction

  We narrow down a 'field of availables' into a 'field of desirables' using 3 filters: social demography, similarity in attitudes, and complementarity
• Social demography filter


  Factors like religion, sexuality, ethnicity, social class, educational attainment and proximity that make potential partners attractive
• Similarity in attitudes filter

  Particularly important in short-term relationships, refers to similarities in core beliefs about significant topics like love, sex and religion
• Complementarity filter


  Particularly important in long-term relationships, refers to the idea that a relationship is more likely to be successful if partners have complementary traits and characteristics
• Proximity


  • Provides accessibility, which makes communication and relationship formation between both parties easier, as the two individuals have regular access to each other
  • Can 'trump' dissimilarities in other social demographic features
• Similarity in attitudes


  • Particularly important in short-term relationships i.e. less than 18 months in duration
  • Describes basic similarities in terms of core beliefs about significant topics, such as love, sex and religion
  • Large dissimilarities may cause the relationship to end, because of the incompatibility that would result in the long-term
• Complementarity


  • Particularly important in long-term relationships
  • A relationship is more likely to be successful if two people feel that they 'complete' each other to form a 'whole'
  • Supports the common belief that opposites attract
• Filter theory may have been considered a valid explanation for relationship formation, but only before the increased use of the Internet and online dating
• Technological advances mean that our 'field of desirables' is further increased because we are not restricted by certain social demographics, such as proximity and social class or culture, because we have the ability to communicate with potential partners before meeting them and potentially starting a relationship
• Filter theory may lack temporal validity because it can only explain dating phenomena which have been restricted to the era before the Internet
• The majority of individuals can still use the three filters outlined in the theory, and so it is not completely invalid as an explanation for relationship formation
• There is evidence to support that filter theory is an important predictor of the progression and initial development of a relationship, as suggested by Winch (1958)
• Winch found that initial similarities in beliefs and attitudes were cited as one of the main attractive features in the partners of respondents, which is in line with the predictions made by the matching hypothesis, as well as increasing the validity of filter theory as a way of narrowing the field of availables down to a field of desirables
• This suggests that even in the modern age, filter theory and the matching hypothesis are still valid explanations of relationship formation
• There is evidence to refute the idea that initial similarities are important in the early stages of relationship formation, as suggested by Anderson et al (2003)
• Emotional convergence


  • Over time, a couple's emotional responses and attitudes will become more similar, and so can be considered as a type of adaptation in response to living together