feminism

• context


  position of women in medieval theory is depicted in explicitly hierarchal terms with women being more sinful than men, inferior to them, and not equipped to take part in political processes

  
  

  aquinas argued that wife 'is something belonging to her husband'

  
  

  early feminism rooted in liberalism

  
  

  wollstonecraft regarded as the first major feminist, arguing for women's economic independence and legal equality

  
  

  at the time she wrote, a married woman could not own property, enter into any legal contract or claim rights over her children

  
  

  history, philosophy, biology and physical exercise were deemed unsuitable or too rigorous for women
• sex and gender

  the distinction between sex and gender is a highly pertinent one when seeking an understanding of feminist ideology.

  
  

  'sex' reflects biological differences between men and women

  
  

  whereas 'gender' refers to cultural and social distinctions. a consideration of the biological and cultural dimension casts light upon a major point of departure within feminist ideology.

  
  

  gender stereotype ensure the subordination of women. gender roles are neither natural nor inevitable

  
  

  certain feminists emphasise the cultural dimension because they see that as the most appropriate means by which to enable women to benefit from empowerment: the main source of female oppression is via the social construct of femininity because "women are not

  born, they are made" (simone de beauvoir). a fundamental change

  in our conception of gender is essential in order that women escape the confines of patriarchy and journey towards a more fulfilling life = androgynous ideal

  
  

  essentialists however emphasize biological differences as they see it as more appropriate to the goals of the women's movement. they believe that women should rejoice in that which makes them biologically different to men (such as giving birth and the ability to breastfeed). These biological abilities are superior to anything a man could ever do. either way, there is an underlying assumption that

  women are biologically superior.

  
  

  on this basis, the psychologist carol Gilligan claims that women adopt a fundamentally different and superior moral psychology to their male counterparts. under patriarchy, women are under pressure to achieve an unrealistic goal that means suppression of the true self
• transfeminism

  represents the vanguard of the modern gender debate

  
  

  tanssexual refers to those who identify as a different gender from the biological sex that they were classified with at birth

  
  

  the rise of transgenderism and transfeminism in the 21st century

  furthered the argument that sex is socially constructed and that transwomen are women

  
  

  however, most feminists argue that sex is a biological fact whilst TERFs (trans-exclusionary radical feminists) reject transwomen as women entirely

  
  

  self-identification has become a prominent dividing line within feminism: how do we define a woman?

  
  

  term used to describe a society dominated by men and run in the interests of men

  
  

  most definitions identify it as a system of oppression that is pervasive throughout society
• transfeminism - in theorizing patriachy

  in theorizing patriarchy (1990), walby identified 6 interrelated social structures which allow men to exploit women. These 6 structures take different forms in different cultures at different

  times:

  1. state: women have been denied representation as well as being

  underrepresented in in positions of power. even in position, working hours or sexist cultures led to women giving up these

  positions 'voluntarily'

  
  

  2. household: women have been conditioned to believe that

  domesticity is destiny, and have been discouraged from pursuing other occupations. millett argued that 'the family is patriarchy's chief institution'

  
  

  3. violence: historically, domestic abuse has not been taking seriously in society; it was not unheard of for police to consider

  it a private family matter. according to the ONS, 2 women are killed every week by their partner or former partner (2015),

  whilst 8% of women will suffer domestic abuse in any given year

  
  

  4. paid work: women are pushed toward lower paid jobs or part-time roles, or in assistant positions to men, or in ones that focused on nurturing children, such as the primary school sector
• transfeminism - in theorizing patriachy 2

  5. sexuality: society forces women to repress their natural sexual desires and consider them dirty. this leads women to spend years feeling shameful or deviant, resulting in them desperately trying to curb their innate desires. at the same time society allows and encourages men to explore the full extent of their sexuality, as a symbol of masculine virility. greer's the female enuch (1970) is a leading text in this area.

  
  

  6. culture: society reinforces its messaging to women through

  culture e.g. marketing and fashion, 'lad' culture magazines,

  cinema and tv, social media create specific constructs of female beauty aspirations and lead to the sexualization and

  objectification of the female body. this adds to the sense of

  alienation and inadequacy that most women feel when they are

  unable to meet these expectations
• personal is political

  slogan associated with the rise of second-wave feminism

  
  

  most feminists distinguish between the public sphere (society) and the private sphere (family)

  
  

  traditionally, discussion about female subjugation was limited to the public sphere. however, 'personal is political' seeks to convey that all relationships between men and women are based on power and dominance, not just those in the public sphere

  
  

  slogan aimed to highlight to women, and wider society, that which happened in the private sphere was also a component part of patriarchy

  
  

  this was particularly true of domestic abuse. in the 1960s and 70s it was either ignored or women were blames for provoking their husbands. the pervading culture of DV as a 'private matter' meant the authorities didn't intervene.

  
  

  the slogan raised awareness so that the status quo could be challenged

  
  

  millet identified the family as a key area of oppression, keeping

  women and girls 'in their place
• intersectionality

  associated with third-wave feminism, criticizing the feminist movement for ignoring black and working-class women's xperiences

  
  

  term first coined by kimberley crenshaw who argued that black women and their issues were being marginalized by both feminist and anti-racist movement as their concerns did not fit comfortably within either group

  
  

  intersectionality therefore 'has given many advocates a way to frame their circumstances and to fight for their visibility and inclusion'

  
  

  bell hooks in ain't i a woman? argued that women were not a

  homogenous category: middle class white women did not serve as accurate representatives of women as a whole

  
  

  feminists should seek to understand the ways in which gender, race, religion and class combined to determine female destiny

  
  

  the clear implication behind intersectionality is that there is no

  singular experience of identity and patriarchy

  
  

  this enables us to recognise the multidimensional basis of social injustice
• liberal feminism context

  'first wave' of the feminist movement was deeply influenced by the ideas and values of liberalism

  
  

  wollstonecraft argued that the 'distinction of sex' would become unimportant in political and social life if women gained access to education and regarded as rational actors in their own right

  
  

  mill's on the subjection of women (1869), written with harriet taylor proposed that society should be organized according to reason and that accidents of birth, such as sex, should be irrelevant
• second wave feminism

  liberal feminism has dominated the women's movement in the USA

  
  

  easily influenced by friedan's the feminine mystique, which marked the resurgence of feminist thought in the 1960s

  
  

  the 'feminine mystique' is the cultural myth that women seek security and fulfilment in domestic life and 'feminine'

  behavior is a myth that serves to discourage women form

  entering the workplace, politics and public life in general

  
  

  she referred to the 'problem with no name' which she

  argued was the sense of despair and deep unhappiness many

  women experience because they are confined to a domestic

  existence, leading to depression and alienation

  
  

  middle-class american women were incarcerated in a

  'comfortable concentration camp' - Friedan's dramatic

  name for the home

  
  

  in 1966, Friedan founded the national organisation of

  women (NOW), which developed into a powerful pressure

  group and the largest women's organisation in the world

  
  

  NOW campaigned for reproductive rights and assisted

  women entering the labour market and supported the

  establishment of childcare facilities in workplaces
• individualism

  philosophical basis of liberal feminism lies in the principle

  of individualism

  
  

  the human individual is all-important and therefore all

  individuals are of equal worth and should be entitled to

  equal treatment irrespective of protected characteristics

  
  

  individuals should be judged on rational grounds, on the

  content of their character, their talents or personal worth

  
  

  all individuals are entitled to participate or gain access to

  public and political life

  
  

  any discrimination against women should therefore be

  prohibited

  
  

  liberal feminists aim to break down any remaining legal and

  social pressures that restrict women from pursuing careers

  or being politically active

  
  

  they seek to increase the representation of women in senior

  positions from boardrooms to political life

  
  

  liberal feminism seeks to open up public life to equal

  competition between the sexes, rather than challenge what

  many other feminists see as the patriarchal structure of

  society itself

  
  

  they do not wish to abolish the distinction between the

  public and private sphere

  
  

  reform is necessary to ensure the establishment of equal

  rights in the public sphere: access to education, voting

  rights, the right to pursue a career

  
  

  the extension of the franchise in 1928 is the crowning

  achievement of liberal feminism in the UK

  
  

  liberal feminists also point to the liberalization of divorce

  law and abortion, equal pay and maternity pay

  
  

  they pay far less attention to the private sphere, specifically

  to the sexual division of labour and distribution of power within the family
• equal rights

  liberal feminists advocate a society in which women hold

  political equality with men

  
  

  this demand has principally attracted those women whose

  education and social backgrounds equip them to take

  advantage of wider educational and career opportunities

  
  

  the suffragettes were a largely middle-class and educated

  movement

  
  

  this demand assumes that all women would have the

  opportunity to take advantage of better opportunities

  afforded to them

  
  

  however, women are often judged not just by their talents

  and abilities but also social and economic factors. If

  emancipation is measured purely on the achievement of

  equal rights then other forms of social disadvantage are

  ignored
• domesticity as choice

  liberal feminist assume that men and women do have

  different natures and inclinations and therefore accept that,

  at least in part, women's leaning towards family and

  domestic life is influenced by natural impulses and so

  reflects a willing choice

  
  

  this is evident in the work of the 19th century feminists but

  also friedan's

  
  

  in the second stage (1983), friedan discussed the need to

  reconcile the emphasis of individual female personhood

  with the need for love, represented by children, home and

  the family
• equality feminist: simone de beauvoir

  she claimed that men construct a notion of femininity and the feminine ideal that served their own

  economic and physical ends

  
  

  whilst biological experiences are of some significance, the entire notion of what a woman should be is socially rather than biologically constructed. This is primarily determined by men and what they would like women to be (and to appear like).

  
  

  as a result, women's bodies are deliberately emphasised and displayed - an observation as pertinent now as ever before. This is reflected in her most famous quote that "one is not born, but rather becomes a woman."

  
  

  therefore, the social construct of women is deliberately created for the benefit of men. women are conditioned into accepting a passive role in life and in taking inordinate care over their appearance.

  
  

  this occurs via the process of socialisation. From an early age, the agents of primary socialisation encourage young girls to adopt a feminine identity. They may have certain toys purchased for them that reinforce gender stereotypes concerning the nurturing mother. girls (and boys) are therefore

  presented with a clear line of separation between the male breadwinner and the female caregiver.

  
  

  there is also an unmistakable emphasis upon the female's appearance. In later years, agents of secondary socialisation continue to reinforce these gender roles to the detriment of the female potential (particularly the media).

  
  

  de beauvoir believed that women should be free to reject male stereotypes of feminine beauty. In doing so, there would be greater equality between men and women. This would be preferable to a patriarchal society in which women were treated as abnormal and thereby prevented from fulfilling their true potential.
• equality feminist: simone de beauvoir 2

  a sense of otherness is all-pervasive within a patriarchal society and a major barrier towards female emancipation. for instance, she points out that the masculine is routinely presented in positive terms (or simply as the norm) whereas the feminine is depicted as the other and therefore inferior. women are therefore presented with a social construct that relegates them to a secondary status.

  
  

  de beauvoir also advocated the destruction of patriarchal institutions. Like many feminists, she was highly critical of the traditional nuclear family.

  
  

  however, her solution was undoubtedly a radical one as she favoured abolishing the family unit altogether. she was also a staunch advocate of the 'politics of sameness' in which equality could only be achieved via an androgynous ideal

  
  

  this would occur "when there would no longer be men and women but only workers equal with one another." both women and men would benefit from a society built upon the principle of equality.
• socialist feminism engels

  became prominent in the second half of the 20 th century

  
  

  central theme is that patriarchy can only be understood in the light of social and economic factors

  
  

  engel's the origins of the family, private property and the state (1884) suggested that the position of women in society changed fundamentally with the development of capitalism and the institution of private property

  
  

  the move away from matriarchal societies to patriarchal coincided with the arrival of capitalism

  
  

  he argued that female oppression operates through the institution of the 'bourgeoise family' which is patriarchal (given that property passes to the son); women lack financial independence

  
  

  in the working-class family, the husband represents the bourgeoise and the wife the proletariat: 'slave of a slave'

  
  

  women act as a reserve army of labour and could be used as part of the workforce when needed, and sent home when their utility runs out
• reformist socialist feminism

  orthodox marxists who insisted on the primacy of class politics over sexual politics

  
  

  this suggests that class oppression is a deeper and more significant process than sexual exploitation

  
  

  women's emancipation will be a by-product of a social revolution in which capitalism is overthrown and replaced

  by socialism

  
  

  'class war' is more important than 'sex war'

  
  

  they saw patriarchy as a consequence of capitalism and thus believe revolution will destroy both interlocking

  systems
• charlotte perkins gilman


  early advocate for socialist feminism

  
  

  best known for her short story, the yellow wallpaper (1892), about a woman suffering from mental illness after three months being closeted in a room by her husband for the sake of her health. it was inspired by her own experiences of post-natal depression

  
  

  viewed collectivism and cooperation as female qualities

  
  

  capitalism's exploitative qualities reinforced patriarchy

  
  

  the triumph of socialism would allow men and women to coexist in egalitarian society and economy

  
  

  she wished for parity between the sexes

  
  

  anticipating intersectionality, Gilman argued that gender and capitalism were interconnected forms of

  oppression

  
  

  only economic independence could give women freedom and equality. motherhood should not prevent women from working outside of the home

  
  

  she championed communal forms of living where child-rearing and housework could be shared and

  even professionalized, allowing women a wider role in society

  
  

  she argued that from childhood, young girls are forced to conform to a domestic role and motherhood, and are prepared for this by toys that are marketed to them and clothes designed for them. she argued that there should be no difference in the clothes little girls and boys wear, the toys they play with or the activities they do
• modern socialist feminists

  question the reformists, found it hard to accept the primacy of class politics over sexual politics

  
  

  they pointed to the disappointing progress made by women in the USSR, suggesting that ending capitalism

  doesn't end patriarchy

  
  

  they refuse to analyse the position of women in simple economic terms, and have instead given attention to the

  cultural and ideological roots of patriarchy

  
  

  they see patriarchy and capitalism as two interlocking systems of oppression, suggesting patriarchy could survive

  the abolition of capitalism

  
  

  in women's estate (1971), mitchell criticised engels for considering women's oppression to be nothing more than

  an aspect of the bourgeoise family. she argued that the family was its own system of oppression, making owmen

  financially dependent on their husbands

  
  

  mitchell suggested that women fulfil four social functions; they are members of the workforce and are active in

  production; they bear children and thus reproduce the human species; they are responsible for socializing children;

  they are sex objects

  
  

  from this perspective, liberation requires that women achieve emancipation in each of these areas, and not merely that the capitalist class system is replaced by socialism
• sheila rowbotham


  her analysis comes from a marxist-feminist perspective

  
  

  rowbotham argued that women's oppression was a result of both economic and cultural forces, so a dual response examining both the public and private spheres was required to work towards liberation

  
  

  she argued that the origins of sexism predate capitalism, and that the institution of marriage closely resembled feudalism. women were the equivalent of serfs, contracted to serve their husbands

  
  

  'men will often admit that other women are oppressed but not you', revealing that men often do not understand the nature of female oppression

  
  

  argued for a 'revolution within a revolution': the only way to destroy capitalism and sexism was a radical change in the 'cultural conditioning' of humanity regarding child-rearing, homes, laws and the workplace

  
  

  capitalism oppresses the working-class and women. women therefore are doubly oppressed as they are forced to sell their labour to survive, but also forced to use their labour to support the husbands and children

  
  

  this occurred as domestic work was done by women to allow the reproduction of men's labour

  
  

  however, the family was also a place where men took refuge from alienation under capitalism
• radical feminism

  not a single idea but a collection of ideas

  
  

  ideas united by a belief that society can be defined purely as patriarchal

  
  

  gender inequality is the foremost system of oppression, and patriarchy is an independent system of oppression,

  separate from other ideologies e.g. liberalism or socialism

  
  

  associated with second wave-feminism and the slogan, 'the personal is political'

  
  

  women are oppressed because women are women and men are men

  
  

  male domination pervades sport, literature, fashion, philosophy, entertainment and sex

  
  

  in the beauty myth (1990), naomi wolf argued that beauty was 'the last, best belief system that keeps male dominance in tact'. the notion of the 'ideal women', through photoshopped images, makes perfection unattainable and led to a proliferation of eating disorders and cosmetic surgery
• kate millett

  her book, sexual politics (1970), gave birth to radical feminism

  
  

  female oppression was both political and cultural, therefore undoing the traditional family unit was key

  to the sexual revolution

  
  

  gamily was 'patriarchy's key institution'; it mirrored larger society, a patriarchal unit in a patriarchal

  whole

  
  

  young girls were taught their 'place' in the family in relation to their brothers and learned about the role of women through observation of hierarchal norms between mother and father

  
  

  this ensures the socialization of the young into patriarchal attitudes. this is further reinforced through

  friends, school, media and all aspects of society

  
  

  traditionally, marriage was a patriarchal institution given that the status of the wife was enshrined as her husband's property (loss of name plus legal assumption that marriage involved an exchange of women's domestic service and sexual consent for financial support)

  
  

  argued that the way women have been portrayed in art and literature was almost universally degrading or patronizing. she studied the language of sexual activity in books and showed how women were the passive 'accepters' of sexual activity - mere commodities that men seek to 'posses'

  
  

  millett attacked romantic love and called for an end to monogamous marriage and the family. She proposed a sexual revolution to bring patriarchy to and end
• difference feminism and seperatism

  call for highlighting and valuing the differences between men and women

  
  

  by celebrating women's special and unique qualities, radical feminists can create a more female-orientated society

  and culture

  
  

  seeking to replicate men and deny their own nature only serves to alienate women from their true selves

  
  

  some cultural feminists seek to go further, stressing the superiority of women's cultural values - such as compassion and pacifism - believing that these can overcome masculine qualities of selfishness, violence and a lack of self-control in sexual behaviour

  
  

  an extension of this comes in the form of separatism and political lesbianism. they argue that women should

  establish permanent separate societies

  
  

  heterosexuality is seen as a political institution that ensures the subjugation of women as any relationship with a

  man is based on power and dominance

  
  

  the only equal relationship can be with a woman, making lesbianism a political choice

  
  

  difference feminism is controversial, given is biological essentialism
• case study - greenham common peace camp

  set up in the 1980s, the camp was a base of protest against the government's decision to site nuclear missiles at the RAF base. the protesters argued that women had a unique abhorrence towards WMD as they were 'life givers' who had to protect their children and future generations - something that men couldn't understand

  
  

  their mainly non-violent protest took the form of songs, human chains, sit-ins, lie-downs, camping and chaining

  themselves to fencing. the women were a permanent fixture for 20 years until they were removed by police for

  trespassing.
• post modern feminism


  associated with third-wave feminism (1990s)

  
  

  argues against the fixed notions of 'women' that has occupied the thoughts of previous waves of feminism

  
  

  seek a fluid understanding as there are as many different experiences between women as there are between men

  and women

  
  

  therefore, it is impossible to generalise about theoretical people called 'women' because women's experiences are

  so vastly different

  
  

  this means that women can define feminism for themselves by integrating feminist values within their own core values and beliefs. in each generation, young women can rediscover and redefine what feminism is to them
• intersectionality

  challenged the notion that gender alone was the primary factor affecting women in society

  
  

  gender has to be placed alongside race, relation and class to provide a more precise analysis of oppression of

  women

  
  

  women experience oppression in various configurations and to varying degrees of intensity

  
  

  black feminists are skeptical about a supra-ethnic notion of sisterhood

  
  

  rape is a case in point. the view of black men as potential rapists has been a formidable racist stereotype

  (particularly in southern states of the USA) and black women who report assaults to racist-minded police, have a

  very different experience from white women who have been raped. failure to accept this creates a feminism that

  unthinkingly privileges one group over others
• bell hooks


  adopted the pseudonym of her great-grandmother, creating an 'other self' linked to her female ancestors, which empowered her to fight back against the opposition that surrounded her. lowercase letters were chosen to distance herself from the ego associated with names

  
  

  argued that from a very young age, boys and girls are constantly being knocked down and told to fit into boxes of characteristics that are expected of them. boys are denied the ability to show or even have real feelings, while girls are taught that the most important thing she could do was change her herself and her feelings in the hope of attracting and pleasing everyone else

  
  

  she is mainly known for her efforts to being the cultural concerns of black women into the mainstream feminist movement, believing that it had previously focused mostly on the plight of white, college- educated middle and upper-class women who had no stake in the concerns of women of colour

  
  

  women of colour had historically found themselves in a double bind. to support the women's movement, they had to ignore the racial aspect of womanhood, but if they supported the civil-rights movement they were subjected to the same patriarchal order that all women faced

  
  

  hooks wrote about the need to articulate and recognize feminist theory of empowerment that was accessible to women of colour. feminism had failed to thus far create political solidarity with women across ethnic and class lines but such solidarity was essential for the eventual liberation of all women
• human nature


  LF - generally, people 'become' women:

  gender is socialised, anti biological determinism.

  gender inequality is not innate and can be overcome.

  
  

  SF - optimistic and malleable. gender inequality and sexism is not inherent; it is caused (marxists)/exacerbated

  by an inequitable economic system

  
  

  RF - men tend to seek dominance/power over women and we should combat this. difference feminists - debatable as to whether underlying differences are socialised or innate
• state

  LF - should play a role in promoting gender equality - i.e. investing in programmes, resources that will help

  women. state should avoid interfering unnecessarily in private lives - PIP link.

  
  

  SF - should play a significant role in promoting gender equality - i.e. forced equality of outcome. State redistribution can assist in achieving gender equality

  
  

  RF - should play a role in abolishing traditional patriarchal structures. needs to be radically changed/overthrown so it doesn't promote traditionally 'male' values and culture. arguably - hierarchy implicit in the state is 'male' in itself.
• society


  LF - the autonomy deficits produced by society in

  its current form are unjust. We would not choose society in its current form - veil of ignorance.

  
  

  SF - society under capitalism is necessarily sexist - it

  relies on the nuclear family to survive. societal institutions (the

  'superstructure') are conditioned by economics (the 'base').

  
  

  RF - society is necessarily

  sexist - it relies on the nuclear family and the promotion of male values to survive. societal institutions need to be changed or abolished.
• economy

  LF - gender equality can be achieved under current

  economic system. more equitable distribution of resources is needed for this to happen. These can be achieved by equality of opportunity and moderate state redistribution.

  
  

  SF - capitalism needs to be overthrown and replaced with

  socialism/communism. gender inequality is caused by economic exploitation - women engaging in unpaid

  reproductive labour is a core example of this

  
  

  RF - the economy as it currently exists is conditioned and

  perpetuated through patriarchy. Many RF are also socialists