Eng

• Fallacy


  An idea which is believed to be true but is false because it is based on incorrect information or reasoning. It is a confused or mistaken idea.
• Ad hominem


  A Latin word that means 'against the man'. It is a literary term that involves commenting on or against an opponent, to undermine him instead of addressing his arguments.
• Ad hominem


  • "How can you argue your case for vegetarianism when you are enjoying that steak? This person is attacked instead of having his arguments addressed for or against."
• Appeal to Force


  A fallacy based on the threat of harm and is not relevant to the argument itself.
• Appeal to Force


  • A friend who means a great deal to you desperately wants to be the top drummer in the school. Before a track meet, your friends say to you "Let me win the race, or I can't be your friend anymore." Letting your friend win the race makes sense, don't you think? This is a fallacy because the threat of losing the friendship to win the race doesn't make a strong argument in favor.
• Appeal to authority


  A common type of fallacy, or an argument based on unsound logic. Something must be true because it is believed by someone who is claimed to be an "authority" on the subject.
• Appeal to authority


  • A commercial claims that a specific brand of cereal is the best way to start the day because athlete Michael Jordan says that it is what he eats every day for breakfast.
• Appeal to emotion


  Makes a claim based on sympathy or empathetic grounds, which one manipulates another's emotions to win an argument. Emotional appeals do not rely on facts or evidence, rather, they rely on playing on emotions.
• Appeal to emotion


  • A most every commercial is an appeal to emotion - a commercial shows kids enjoying their cereal with a happy cartoon in the background. The commercial is supposed to make parents think that if they get this cereal their kids will just sit down and have a happy breakfast.
• Appeal to Popularity


  An argument that something is the right or correct thing to do because a lot of people agree with doing it. This fallacy is also called the bandwagon fallacy.
• Appeal to Popularity


  • Everyone says that it's okay to lie as long as you don't get caught. 2. It might be against the law to drink when you are 18 years old, but everyone does it, so it's okay.
• Appeal to Tradition


  Uses historical preferences of the people (tradition), either in general or as specific as the historical preferences of a single individual, as evidence that the historical preference is correct.
• Appeal to Tradition


  • It doesn't matter it is our family tradition. Who am I to break it?
• Begging the Question

  A claim is made in which a premise is used to support the conclusion, but one must already accept the premise to be true for the conclusion to be true.
• Begging the Question


  • Our ancestors thought x was right. Therefore, X is right.
• Cause and Effect


  A fallacy that occurs when someone claims that because two things typically occur together, one causes the other. However, the two things do not have a cause effect relationship.
• Cause and Effect


  • Jennifer comes to class just as the bell rings every day. Therefore, Jennifer coming to class causes the bell to ring. 2. Depression comes with loneliness. People who are terminally ill are also often depressed. So, depression can cause loneliness.
• Fallacy of Division


  when someone argues that something that is true for the whole is also true for the parts.
• Fallacy of Composition


  Inferring that something that is true of the parts is also true for the whole.
• 2. Always stay with facts. Avoid opinions, bias, prejudice, and stereotyping.
• The Fallacy of Division is the opposite of the Fallacy of Composition
• The Fallacy of Division is a logical fallacy where one assumes that something true of the whole must also be true of the parts
• Bias is the tendency of a human being to have a positive tendency for something or a negative tendency against something
• Bias can lead to prejudice and stereotyping
• Fact


  A statement that is true and can be verified objectively
• Opinion


  A statement that holds an element of belief, truths, and feelings
• Opinions are not always true and cannot be proven
• Fact vs Opinion

  • Dogs have fur (Fact)
  • Dog fur is pretty (Opinion)
  • The Beatles were a band (Fact)
  • The Beatles sang great songs (Opinion)
  • President Rodrigo Duterte is the 16th President of the Philippines (Fact)
  • President Rodrigo Duterte is the greatest president the Philippines has ever had (Opinion)
• Correspondence bias is the tendency to draw inferences about a person's unique and enduring dispositions from behaviors that can be entirely explained by situations in which they occur
• Confirmation bias is the tendency to favor information that confirms your previously existing beliefs or biases
• Framing effect is the principle that people's choices are influenced by the way options are presented to them
• Framing effect


  • 80% lean ground beef vs 20% fat ground beef
  • Presenting options as a gain vs a loss
• Hindsight bias is the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an outcome that could not possibly have been predicted
• Conflict of interest


  A situation where an individual has competing loyalties because of duties to more than one organization or person
• Conflicts of interest can exist in many different situations, involving personal, professional, or public official relationships
• Cultural bias is the tendency for people to judge the outside world through a narrow view based on their own culture
• Cultural bias


  • An employee from a particular cultural background may not be deemed to deserve promotion
  • A teacher may show less interest in the progress of students of a particular community
  • A judge may consciously or unconsciously give a harsher verdict to a person who hails from a community he considers inferior
• Value judgement


  A judgement about the rightness or wrongness of something, or of the usefulness or desirability of something, based on a comparison with other things or on a particular set of values
• Some academics have argued that it is more important to make critical, value judgements about issues than descriptive judgements
• This idea presupposes that the person making a critical value judgement is not influenced by their own background values