language and gender

• four D-Models:

  • Dominance
  • Deficit
  • Difference
  • Diversity
• Dominance Theory

  key theorists

  • Janet Holmes
  • Dale Spender
  • Stanely
  • Zimmerman and West
  • Beatties
• Dominance theory suggests that men dominate women through their use of language, which is more powerful than women's.
• Janet Holnes (Dominance)

  tag questions:


  referential : highlights uncertainty in speech .i.e. "the film is on channel 4, isn't it?"

  affective (facilitative) : expresses solidarity and intimacy .i.e. "we have never liked horror films, have we?"

  affective (softening) : softens command and criticism .i.e. "would you?"
• Stanley :

  research from the 1970s - number of insults used for women against men.

  Followed by research done by Tyger Drew-Honey in 2015- men + women used "slag and slut" for women and use "lad" for men
• semantic derogation

  words have gained negative connotations over time.

  'master' and 'mistress'
• Janet Holmes

  women are referred to in affectionate nominations (names)

  semantics of food and animals

  'sugar' 'honey' 'cow' 'bitch'
• Dale Spender

  'male as norm' - mankind

  women are add-ons

  'Mr and Mrs' 'lord and lady'

  gender-neutral terms
• Zimmerman and West

  interruptions in conversations

  critics:

  • small number of subjects
  • all white, middle-class, male under 35
  • not good sample
• Beattie's study

  more preventive then zimmerman and west

  research is larger and more accurate

  found equal amount of interruptions