M2-PHARMACOGNOSY

• Mevalonate Pathway

  1. Isopentyl PPO4 - 5 C

  2. Geranyl PO4 - 10 C; monoterpenes

  3. Farnesyl PO4 - 15 C; sesquiterpenes

  4. Geranylgeranyl PO4 - 20 C; diterpenes

  5. Squalene - 30 C; triterpenes
• Shikimic Acid Pathway

  1. Chorismate → anthranilate → W

  2. Prephenate → phenylpyruvate → F

  3. Prephenate → 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate → Y
• Preparation of Crude Drugs

  1. Collection

  2. Harvesting

  3. Drying

  4. Curing

  5. Garbling

  6. Packaging

  7. Extraction (Maceration, Infusion, Digestion, Decoction, Percolation)
• Evaluation of Crude Drugs

  • Organoleptic
  • Microscopic
  • Physical
  • Chemical
  • Pharmacologic
• Adulteration

  • Sophistication
  • Admixture
  • Deterioration
  • Spoilage
  • Inferiority
  • Substitution
• Classification of Drugs

  • Alphabetical
  • Morphological
  • Taxonomic
  • Pharmacologic/ therapeutic
  • Chemical
• Carbohydrates & Its Metabolites

  • Monosaccharides
  • Disaccharides
  • Polysaccharides (Homoglycans, Heteroglycans)
  • Glycosides
  • Tannins
• Lipids & Its Metabolites

  • Fixed oils
  • Fats
  • Waxes
  • Volatile oils
  • Resins (Resins, Oleoresins, Oleogum resins, Balsams)
• Monosaccharides

  • Xylose
  • Glucose
  • Fructose (levulose)
  • Galactose
• Disaccharides

  • Maltose - α1,4
  • Sucrose - α1,β2
  • Lactose - β1,4
  • Lactulose - β1,4
• Derivatives of Sugars - Sugar Acids

  • Cherry juice
  • Fumaric acid
  • Lactic acid
  • Tartaric acid
  • Citric acid
• Derivatives of Sugars - Sugar Alcohols

  • Ethanol
  • Mannitol
  • Sorbitol
• Polysaccharides - Homoglycans

  • Starch (Pregelatinized starch, Sodium starch glycolate, Hetastarch)
  • Cellulose (Absorbent cotton, Rayon, Methylcellulose (MC), Hypromellose (HPMC), Cellulose acetate phthalate (CAP), Pyroxylin)
  • Inulin
  • Chitin
  • Dextran
• Polysaccharides - Heteroglycans

  • Pectin (Protopectin, Pectin, Pectinic acid)
  • Gums & mucilages (Plant exudates, Seed gums, Marine Gums, Microbial Gum)
• Glycosides

  • Cardiac
  • Anthraquinone
  • Saponin
  • Lactone
  • Flavonol
  • Cyanogenic (Cyanophores)
  • Isothiocyanate (Glucosinolates)
  • Alcohol
  • Phenol
  • Aldehyde
• Cardiac Glycosides


  • Foxglove
  • Oleander
  • Lily of the Valley
  • Dogbane or Black Indian Hemp
  • Strophanthus
  • Squill
  • Black Hellebore
• Saponin Glycosides

  • Liquorice
  • Ginseng
  • Yam
• Isothiocyanate Glycosides (Glucosinolates)

  • Black Mustard
  • White Mustard
• Alcohol Glycoside


  • Willow
• Phenol Glycoside


  • Bearberry
• Aldehyde Glycoside


  • Vanilla
• Tannins


  • Hydrolysable
  • Condensed
• Hydrolysable Tannins


  Glucose + phenolic acids (ex. gallic)
• Condensed Tannins


  Flavonols (ex. cyanidins, catechins)
• Tannins

  • Dry distillation (Pyrogallol, Pyrocatechin)
  • Leather (Bloom, Tanner's red (phlobaphenes))
  • KMnO4 (Colorless, Violet)
  • Bromine (No ppt, ppt)
  • FeCl3 (Black blue, Brownish green)
• Tannins

  • Nutgall
  • Witch Hazel
• Lipids & Its Metabolites

  • Fats
  • Fixed Oils
  • Waxes
• Fats

  TAGs (↑ saturated)
• Fixed Oils

  TAGs (↑ unsaturated)
• Waxes


  Long FA + Long monohydric ROH
• Lipids


  • Solid (Animals), Liquid (Plants), Solid/ semisolid (Animals/ plants)
• Fats

  • Cocoa
  • Lanolin
  • Lard
  • Suet
• Waxes

  • Spermaceti
  • Jojoba
  • Carnauba
  • Beeswax
• Volatile Oils


  • Hydrocarbon VO
  • Alcohol VO
  • Aldehyde VO
  • Ketone VO
  • Phenol VO
  • Phenolic Ether VO
  • Oxide VO
  • Ester VO
• Hydrocarbon VO


  • Oil of Turpentine
• Phenol VO

  • Clove
  • Oregano
  • Myrcia
  • Thyme
  • Creosote
• Oxide VO

  • Eucalyptus
  • Wormseed
• Ester VO

  • Wintergreen
  • Sweet Birch
  • Lavender
• Resins

  • Resins
  • Oleoresins
  • Oleogum Resins
  • Balsams
• Oleoresins

  • Turpentine
  • Chili Pepper
  • Ginger
  • Copaiba