M2-SUMMARY

• Molisch test

  • Reagent: 10% alpha-naphtol in ethanol
  • Positive result: Violet ring
• Anthrone test

  • Reagent: Anthrone
  • Positive result: Dark green
• Iodine test

  • Reagent: Iodine TS
  • Positive result: Violet
• Benedict's test

  • Reagent: Cupric ions in alkaline medium
  • Positive result: Brick red
• Barfoed's test

  • Reagent: Cupric ions in acidic medium
  • Positive result: Brick red
• Seliwanoff's test


  • Reagent: Resorcinol in HCl
  • Positive result: Pink-red/Rose
• Bial's Orcinol test


  • Reagent: Orcinol in FeCl3 and HCl
  • Positive result: Blue-green
• Phloroglucinol test


  • Reagent: Phloroglucinol
  • Positive result: Red
• Phenylhydrazine test


  • Reagent: Dinitrophenylhydrazine in Sodium acetate
  • Positive result: Osazone crystals
• Mucic Acid test


  • Reagent: Nitric acid
  • Positive result: Mucic acid crystals
• Ninhydrin test


  • Reagent: Ninhydrin
  • Positive result: Blue/lavender/violet
• Biuret's test


  • Reagent: Cupric sulfate in NaOH
  • Positive result: Violet
• Xanthoproteic test


  • Reagent: Conc. Nitric acid
  • Positive result: Yellow to orange
• Hopkin's cole test


  • Reagent: Glyoxylic acid in H2SO4
  • Positive result: Violet ring
• Nitroprusside test


  • Reagent: Sodium Nitroprusside
  • Positive result: Red
• Millon's test


  • Reagent: Mercury in nitric acid
  • Positive result: Rose/salmon
• Sakaguchi test


  • Reagent: 10% alpha naphtol in NaBrO/NaClO
  • Positive result: Reddish wine
• Fohl's test


  • Reagent: Lead II Acetate
  • Positive result: Brown or black
• Pauly's test


  • Reagent: Diazotized sulfanilic acid
  • Positive result: Red
• Amide test


  • Reagent: NaOH + heat
  • Positive result: Litmus paper r->B
• Liebermann Burchard test


  • Reagent: Sulfuric acid and acetic anhydride
  • Positive result (unsaturated): Green, blue
  • Positive result (saturated): yellow
• Acrolein test


  • Reagent: heat
  • Positive result: Acrid odor
• Bromine test


  • Reagent: Bromine in Carbon tetrachloride
  • Positive result: Disappearance of orange color
• Kraut's test


  • Reagent: Potassium bismuth iodide
  • Positive result: Orange ppt.
• Sudan III test


  • Reagent: Tetraazobenzene
  • Positive result: Red
• Osmic acid test


  • Reagent: Osmium tetroxide
  • Positive result: Black
• Tincture of Alkanna test

  • Reagent: Alkanet root extract
  • Positive result: Red
• Osazone test


  • Mannose, Glucose: Needle shape
  • Maltose: Sunflower shape
  • Galactose: Rhombic plates
  • Lactose: Powderpuff/Hedgehog shape
• Glycosidic linkages


  • Sucrose (glucose+fructose): α1-β2 glycosidic bond
  • Maltose (glucose+glucose): α1-4 glycosidic bond
  • Lactose (glucose+galactose): β1-4 glycosidic bond
  • Lactulose (galactose+fructose): β1-4 glycosidic bond
• DNA replication enzymes


  • Helicase: Unwinds and separates the DNA helix into single-stranded DNA
  • Primase: Synthesizes RNA primers complementary to the DNA strand
  • DNA Polymerase III: Extends the primers, adding to the 3' end, to make the bulk of new DNA
  • Topoisomerase: Works at the region ahead of the replication fork to prevent supercoiling
  • DNA polymerase I: Removes RNA primers and replaces with DNA
• Amino acids


  • Polar: Asparagine (N), Tyrosine (Y), Serine (S), Threonine (T), Glutamine (Q), Cysteine (C)
  • Nonpolar: Glycine (G), Alanine (A), Valine (V), Leucine (L), Isoleucine (I), Proline (P), Phenylalanine (F), Tryptophan (W), Methionine (M)
  • Electrically charged: Aspartate (D), Glutamate (E), Lysine (L), Arginine (R), Histidine (H)
• Glycogen storage diseases


  • TYPE 1- Von Gierke: Glucose-6-phosphatase deficient, Hypoglycemia, enlarged liver and kidneys
  • TYPE 2- Pompe: α-1,4-glucosidase or acid maltase deficient, Diminished muscle tone, heart failure
  • TYPE 3- Cori: Debranching enzyme deficient, Fasting hypoglycemia, enlarged liver, cirrhosis, muscle weakness
  • TYPE 4- Andersen: Branching enzyme deficient, Enlarged liver, cirrhosis, Diminished muscle tone
  • TYPE 5-McArdle: Muscle phosphorylase deficient, Muscle weakness, fatigue, muscle cramps
  • TYPE 6-Her's: Liver phosphorylase deficient, Low blood sugar, enlarged liver or no symptoms
  • TYPE 7- Taruii: Muscle phosphofructokinase deficient, Hemolysis, muscle cramps
• Lysosomal storage diseases


  • Tay-sachs disease: Hexosaminidase A deficient, Gangliosides accumulate
  • Gaucher disease: beta-glucosidase/glucocerebrosidase deficient, Glucocerebroside accumulates
  • Niemann-Pick disease: Acid sphingomyelinase deficient, Sphingomyelin accumulates
  • Sandhoff disease: Hexosaminidase A&B deficient, Globosides accumulate
  • Fabry disease: Alpha-galactosidase deficient, Ceramide trihexoside accumulates
  • Krabbe disease: Beta-galactosidase/Galactosylceramidase deficient, Galactocerebroside accumulates
  • Farber disease: Ceramidase deficient, Ceramide accumulates
• Other diseases


  • Lesch Nyhan syndrome: Hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRT) deficient, Uric acid overproduction, Self mutilation
  • Alkaptonuria: homogentisic dioxygenase deficient, Low phenylalanine and Tyrosine, Dark urine
  • Phenylketonuria: phenylalanine hydroxylase deficient, Phenylalanine build up, Seizure eczema
  • Maple syrup urine disease: branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase deficient, Branched chain amino acid build up
  • Albinism: tyrosinase deficient, No melanin
• Site of FA synthesis – cytosol
• Site of TCA Cycle – Mitochondria
• Autolysis – Lysosomes
• Site of ketogenesis – mitochondria
• Site of ATP synthesis – mitochondria
• Ribosome assembly – nucleolus