Geography paper 2- urban issues and challenges

• Urbanisation

  Increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas such as towns or cities
• In 2007, the UN announced that for the first time, more than 50% of the world's population live in urban areas
• Where urbanisation is happening

  • All over the world
  • In LICs and NEEs, rates are much faster than HICs
• Causes of urbanisation

  • Rural-urban migration
  • Natural increase
• Causes of rural-urban migration (push factors)

  • Natural disasters
  • War and conflict
  • Mechanisation
  • Drought
  • Lack of employment
• Causes of natural increase

  • Increase in birth rate
  • Lower death rate
• Megacity

  An urban area with over 10 million people living there
• More than two thirds of current megacities are located in either NEEs (Brazil) and LICs (Bangladesh). The amount of megacities are predicted to increase from 28 to 41 by 2030.
• Sustainable urban living means being able to live in cities in ways that do not pollute the environment and using resources in ways that ensure future generations also can use them.
• Sustainable urban living example: The Greenhouse

  • Located in Beeston, South Leeds
  • Development of 100 houses
  • Aims to be carbon neutral
  • Rainwater is collected and recycled
  • Carpet underlay is made from recycled tyres
  • Building has two wind turbines contributing to electricity
  • Taps aerate water reducing consumption
• Traffic problems in urban areas

  • Environmental problems
  • Economic problems
  • Social problems
• Traffic management solutions

  • Widen roads
  • Build ring roads and bypasses
  • Introduce park and ride schemes
  • Encourage car-sharing schemes
  • Have public transport, cycle lanes & cycle hire schemes
  • Introduce congestion charges
• Leeds has introduced lots of traffic management strategies in recent years, with the most money spent on improving public transport services, especially buses. Leeds has 3 main park and ride schemes, with the largest being Elland Road.
• Development

  How economically, socially, culturally or technologically advanced a country is. It suggests: advancement, evolution, expansion, growth, improvement, increase, maturity, progress, changes for the better.
• Development Indicators

  • GNI
  • HDI
  • Infant mortality
  • Literacy rate
• GNI

  An average of gross national income per person, per year in US dollars
• HDI

  A number that uses life expectancy, education level and income per person
• Infant mortality


  The number of children who die before reaching 1 per 1000 babies born
• Literacy rate

  The percentage of population over the age of 15 who can read and write
• Variations in the level of development

  • LICS
  • NEES
  • HICS
• LICS

  Poorest countries in the world. GNI per capita is low and most citizens have a low standard of living
• NEES

  These countries are getting richer as their economy is progressing from the primary industry to the secondary industry. Greater exports leads to better wages
• HICS

  These countries are wealthy with a high GNI per capita and standards of living. These countries can spend money on services
• Development is globally uneven with most HICs located in Europe, North America and Oceania. Most NEEs are in Asia and South America, whilst most LICs are in Africa.
• Factors Causing Uneven Development

  • Physical Environment
  • Trade
  • Health
  • History
• Physical Environment

  • Soil erosion, desertification, climate change, overgrazing and infertile soils affect farming
  • Areas without fertile land, natural resources, water and energy suffer
  • Natural hazards make little progress with development e.g. Haiti
• Trade

  • Primary products sold by LICs are sold for cheap prices that can fluctuate. HICs make more expensive products
  • Poor infrastructure or conflict means some people cannot sell their goods
• Health

  • Diseases can make people too weak to work or go to school
  • 80% of all developing world disease is water-related. 2 million die a year. LICs are unable to invest in good quality health care
• History

  • Colonialism: Many countries in Asia, America and Africa have spent a lot of time and money on civil wars and political struggles for power since being made separate from European superpowers
• Reducing the Development Gap

  • Microfinance Loans
  • Fair trade
  • Debt Relief
  • Aid
• Microfinance Loans

  This involves people in LICs receiving small loans from traditional banks. Loans enable people to begin their own businesses. It's not clear they can reduce poverty at a large scale.
• Fair trade

  This is a movement where farmers get a fair price for the goods produced. Paid fairly so they can develop schools & health centres. Only a tiny proportion of the extra money reaches producers.
• Debt Relief

  This is when a country's debt is cancelled or interest rates are lowered. Means more money can be spent on development. Locals might not always get a say. Some aid can be tied under condition from donor country.
• Aid

  This is given by one country to another as money or resources. Improve literacy rates, building dams, improving agriculture. Can be wasted by corrupt governments or they can have conditions attached.
• Standard of living refers to the economic level of a person's daily life. Quality of life looks at social measures of well being such as health.
• The demographic transition model shows how a country's population changes as it becomes more developed from subsistence farming cultures to HICS.
• Population pyramids/structures change over time too-from having a wide base (lots of young people) to a more rounded shape, where there is an ageing population.
• Many countries in Asia, America and Africa have spent a lot of time and money on civil wars and political struggles for power since being made separate from European superpowers
• Microfinance Loans

  People in LICs receiving small loans from traditional banks
• Microfinance Loans

  • Loans enable people to begin their own businesses
  • It's not clear they can reduce poverty at a large scale