Bio-chemistry

• Organic ions contain carbon atoms bonded with other elements
• Inorganic don't contain carbon atoms
• Inorganic ions in livinf organisms
• Inorganic ions in living organism

  Mg^2+ - Constituent of chlorophyll, essential for photosynthesis

  Fe^2+ - Constituent of hemoglobin, transports o2 in red blood cells

  Ca 2+ - Hardens bones and teeth, a component of plant cells walls

  NO3^- Nitrogen derived from nitrate. Needed to make nucleotides including ATP, DNA and RNA. Nitrogen needed for the formation of amino acid

  Po4^3- Constituent of phospholipids which form the biological membrane. Helps build nucleotides including ATP, DNA and RNA
• Inorganic ions in living organism Mg^2+ - Constituent of chlorophyll, essential for photosynthesis

  Fe^2+ - Constituent of hemoglobin, transports o2 in red blood cells

  Ca 2+ - Hardens bones and teeth, a component of plant cells walls

  NO3^- Nitrogen derived from nitrate. Needed to make nucleotide including ATP, DNA and RNA. Nitrogen needed for the formation of amino acid

  PO4^3- Used to make nucleotide including ATP, DNA and RNA. COnstituent of phospholipids found in biological membrane. Hardens bones
• Nucleotides are used to make molecules of ATP, DNa and RNA. In DNA, pentose sugar is deoxyribose. RNA - pentose sugar is called ribose
• Properties of water

  2H (Slightly positive), 1 oxygen (slightly negative) joined by covalent bond. Polar molecule (has a charge)

  1. Ice less dense than water, acts as a habitat so animals can step/walk on ice. Also forms an insulating layer over water which prevents organisms from freezing underneath so it wouldn't affect them so they can function properley
  2. Universal solvent/excellent solvent - water molecules are polar, they are more attracted to molecules that are non polar (Not charged). Lots of substances can dissolved in water
• Water molecule


  2H (Slightly positive), 1 oxygen (slightly negative) joined by covalent bond. Polar molecule (has a charge)
• Ice


  • Less dense than water
  • Acts as a habitat so animals can step/walk on ice
  • Forms an insulating layer over water which prevents organisms from freezing underneath so it wouldn't affect them so they can function properly
• Water


  Universal solvent/excellent solvent - water molecules are polar, they are more attracted to molecules that are non polar (Not charged). Lots of substances can dissolved in water
• Water is transparent/colourless
• Water plays an important part in metabolite reactions. Hydrolysis +photosynthesis. Waters also produced is condensation reaction and aerobic reactions as 'waste products'
• Cohesion


  Water molecules stick together due to H-bonds between and H2O molecules. This causes surface tension where water forms a habitat so certain insects can walk on water
• Latent heat of water

  Very high - Receives a large amount of energy to change the temperature of water. Requires a large amount of energy to evaporate water. Allows organisms to cool themselves without great sets of water. E.g sweating . Heat energy is used to evaporate water
• Water In plants

  1. Cohesion- water molecules stick together due to H- bonds between other H20 molecules in long collum of water in the xylem
  2. Transports substances in the xylem of plants. Water in Xylem contains dissolved minerals such as mg ions which comes from the soil and pass into plant roots , xylem - leaves. Once in the leaves , mg ions are used to make chloroplast 4 phtosynthesis
• Monosacchardies are one unit of sugar

  Carbon binds strongly to other carbon atoms, can make 4 covalent bonds, small molecules (monomers) can join together to form big molecules (polymer). Can form branched chains and rings

  general formula of monosaccharides ^^$Cn(H2O)n$
• Triose important in cellular respiration

  pentose- Ribose sugar used for RNA sequence. Deoxyribose used for DNA sequence

  A) Hydrogen

  B) Hydrogen

  
• Hexose sugar. Alpha glucose, Beta glucose, Galactose and fructose

  Beta glucose just has The hydroxides and Hydrogen groups swithced around at the end

  Galactose Hydroxide and H groups switched at both end

  
• Dissaccharides- 2 unit of sugar. Sucrose (reducing sugar) Joined by glucose and fructose through a 1,4 glycosydic bond.

  Maltose joint by 2 alpha glucose

  Lactose - Alpha glucose and galactose
• Polysaccharides- 3 or more units of sugar chemically joined together

  Properties that make them a good storage compound

  1. Insoluble in water
  2. compact, readily accessible
• Storage Polysaccharides found in plants

  Starch (Stores glucose in plants)

  composed of amylose and amylopectin

  Amylose , Unbranced polymer (has a linear structure) glucose monomers joint by 1,4 glycosidic bond. Glcose released by enzyme action at both ends of polymer is slower

  Amylopectin Branched polymer. Glucose monomers joint by 1,4 glycosydic bond and 1,6 glycosydic bond. GLucose released by enzyme action at more ends of polymer is quicker than Amylose
• Storage polysacchardie

  Glycogen (Stores glucose in animals)

  Higher concentration of glucose , which is why it's more frequently branched, more rapidly broken down into glucose

  mainly stores in liver and muscles which need energy at all times

  Hormone called insulin stores exessive amount of glucose as glucagon
• 2 reasons why starch is a suitable molecule for storage

  1. Large molecule cannot diffuse out of the cell
  2. Insoluable, doesn't dissvole in water and doesn't affect the water potential of the cell so it won't cause osmosis/draw water in the cell
• Structural polysaccharidess

  cellulose - structural compound of plants (cell wall)
• Polysaccharides

  Cellulose- structural compound of pants (cell wall)

  Made from Beta glucose molecules. The OH ions are not adjacent to each other so they cannot form 1,4 glycosydic bond. 2nd beta glucose monomer is rotated at 180 degrees so the hydroxides groups are adjacent together. Thus forming a 1,4 glycosydic bond. 3rd monomer doesn't need to be rotated and so on

  Lays flat (sits parallel) to eachother. Hhdrogen bonds formed between other hydroxides group with parallel cellulose resulting in many cross links forming micro-fibrils . When held in bundles they are called fibres
• Structual polysaccharide in animals

  Chitin- Fungal cell wall and the exoskeletonof insects

  Made from B-glucose monomers . Similiar in structure to cellulose with its 1,4 glycosydic bond except one hydroxide group has been replaced with amine group. This makes chitin strong,waterproof and light weight
• Structual polysaccharide in animalsChitin- Fungal cell wall and the exoskeletonof insects Made from B-glucose monomers . Similiar in structure to cellulose with its 1,4 glycosydic bond except one hydroxide group has been replaced with amine group. This makes chitin strong,waterproof and light weight
• Proteins are a linear sequence of amino acid monomers joint by a peptide bond
• Amino acid structure

  
• Essential amino acids are not synthesized by our bodies. Provided with diet

  non essential amino acids are synthesized by our body
• Primary structure- The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain

  Secondary structure- The formation of secondary structure held by Hydrogen bonds. Alpha helices and Beta- pleated sheets
• Tertiary structure- The secondary structure are further folded up to form a very precise 3- Dimensional shape. Held by 4 bonds

  Hydrogen bnds - High temp and altered pH can split these bonds

  Ionic bond- Split by changing the pH

  Disulphide bridges- By reducing agents

  Van der Waals forces- Rise in temperature
• Proteins contain C, H, O, N atoms. Some proteins contain S and phosphurus

  carbs contain C,H,O
• A single base susbitution causes a change in the structure of polypeptide (3)

  Alter the order of amino acids. Some mutations are silent because the genetic code is degenerate. Changing the DNA base can still code for same amino acid. Affect overall shape of a tertiary structure by affecting the bond in diffrent bases. If you have diffrent amino acid it will affect those bond formations. End up with a different tertiary structure
• The quaternary structure arises from a combination of two or more polypeptide chains in tertiary form. These are associated with non-protein groups and form large complex molecules such as haemoglobin.
• Quaternary structure - combination of 2 or more sub units (polypeptide chain) or made of prosthetic group molecules in tertiary group

  prosthetic groups are Non protein groups. Molecule that has no more then 1 carbon (inorganic ion) . "minerals"
• Globular proteins have functions such as enzymes, antibodies and hormones. They are compact and folded into 3 D spherical molecule which is soluable in water. 4 Polypeptide chain. One gene is required for each polypeptide chain
• Haemoglobin- 4 polypeptide chains, each polypeptide is diffrent (4 genes are needed to code for haemoglobin). Hameoglobin is associated with non- proteins group. Highest level protein structure is quaternary
• Fibrous protein have structural functions. E.g Bones, teeths, tendonds , walls of blood vessels.

  Collagen is a connective tissue which requires 3 polypeptide chain. each polypeptide is the same so only one gene is needed to code for collagen. Collagen isn't associated with nonh-protein groups. Highest level of protein structure is secondary.
• Collagen- lOng oarallel polypeptide chain. Cross linkages at intervals between parallel polypeptide chain. Creates long fibres and sheets. Mostly insoluable