Intro To Physiology 1

• Anatomy


  Study of structures associated with human body: organelle, cells, tissues, organs and organisms
• Physiology


  Study of functionality of living organisms at the cellular, organ, and systemic levels
• Anatomy


  Study of structures
• Levels of organization


  • Subatomic particles
  • Atom
  • Molecule
  • Macromolecule
  • Organelle
  • Cell
  • Tissue
  • Organ
  • Organ system
  • Organism
• Organ Systems


  • Skeletal system
  • Muscular system
  • Integumentary system
  • Nervous system
  • Endocrine system
  • Cardiovascular system
  • Lymphatic system
  • Digestive system
  • Respiratory system
  • Urinary system
  • Male and Female reproductive system
• Some key functions of the Organ Systems

  • To sustain life
  • Circulation - movement of substances in body fluids
  • Movement - change in position; motion
  • Responsiveness - reaction to a change
  • Growth - increase in body size; no change in shape
  • Reproduction - production of new organisms and new cells
  • Respiration - obtaining oxygen; removing carbon dioxide; releasing energy from foods
  • Digestion - breakdown of food substances into simpler forms
  • Excretion - removal of wastes produced by metabolic reactions
• Homeostasis


  Homeo or 'constant'; stasis or 'stable'
• Process of maintaining relatively stable internal environment


  Adjust for any changes to keep the condition & body environment in well-working order to sustain life
• Homeostasis


  Not a static state of balance, but the continuous dynamic response to the ever changing external and internal environments to maintain functionality of the body
• When the body fails to balance - constant imbalance will lead to disfunction/disorders etc.
• Homeostasis


  • Three components interact
• Examples of homeostasis in everyday life

  • Negative Feedback
  • Positive Feedback
  • Regulation of blood clotting
• Basic unit of life

  Basic living unit of structure & function of the body, with over 100 trillion cells in the body, highly organized, variety of shapes & sizes, each type of cells has a special function
• All cells share certain characteristics


  • General cell structure & components
  • General mechanisms for changing nutrients to energy
  • Deliver end products into their surrounding fluid
  • Almost all have the ability to reproduce
• Cell structure


  • Plasma (cell) membrane
  • Cytoplasm & organelles
  • Nucleus
• Four major groups of biomolecules

  • Carbohydrates
  • Lipids
  • Proteins
  • Nucleotides and nucleic acids
• Carbohydrates


  Chemical formula - (CH2O)n, most abundant, made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, major sources of energy in the body, simple (monosaccharides) and complex (polysaccharides)
• Monosaccharides


  Simple sugars, general formula is C6H12O6, structural isomers, major monosaccharides are glucose, galactose and fructose, produced by digestion of complex carbohydrates, regulate blood sugar levels
• Disaccharides


  Composed of 2 monosaccharides, major disaccharides are sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), and maltose (glucose + glucose)
• Polysaccharides


  Chains of glucose subunits, include starch (energy storage in plants), cellulose (structural molecule of plant cell walls), and glycogen (energy storage in animals)
• Lipids


  Carbon and hydrogen (little oxygen), structurally diverse, include triglycerides/neutral fats (energy storage), phospholipids (membranes), steroids (membranes/hormones), and eicosanoids (signaling molecules)
• Fatty Acids


  Chain of 4 to 24 carbon atoms, classified as saturated (carbon atoms saturated with hydrogen) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds)
• Monosaccharides


  Simple sugars, general formula is C6H12O6, structural isomers, major monosaccharides are glucose, galactose and fructose, produced by digestion of complex carbohydrates, glucose in blood sugar levels
• Polysaccharides


  Chains of glucose subunits, includes starch (energy storage in plants), cellulose (structural molecule of plant cell walls), and glycogen (energy storage in animals)
• Lipids


  • Contain carbon and hydrogen (little oxygen), structurally diverse, includes triglycerides/neutral fats, phospholipids, steroids, and eicosanoids
• Fatty Acids


  Chain of 4 to 24 carbon atoms, classified as saturated (carbon atoms saturated with hydrogen) or unsaturated (contains C=C bonds without hydrogen)
• Triglycerides (Neutral Fats)


  3 fatty acids bonded to glycerol molecule, liquid at room temperature (oils) often polyunsaturated fats from plants, solid at room temperature (fats) often saturated fats from animals, function is energy storage, insulation and shock absorption
• Steroids and Cholesterol


  Steroids are lipids with carbon atoms in four rings, all steroids are derived from cholesterol, includes cortisol, progesterone, estrogens, testosterone and bile acids, cholesterol is an important component of cell membranes and is produced only in animal liver cells
• Types of Proteins


  • Structural proteins
  • Storage proteins
  • Contractile proteins
  • Transport proteins
• Nucleotides


  Composed of a base, sugar (carbohydrate), and phosphate groups, transmit and store genetic information (DNA and RNA) and transmit and store energy (ATP, cAMP, NAD, and FAD)
• Central Dogma of Genetic Information

  1. DNA

  2. RNA

  3. PROTEIN
• Basis of phenotypic variation is genetic variance (35 million single-nucleotide substitutions, ~3% other structural variants) and epigenetic modifications of the genome during development
• Genes can be switched 'on' and 'off', and different sets of genes are turned 'on' in different types of cells
• In some species of reptiles, sex is determined by the temperature at which the egg is incubated
• Nutrition can influence epigenetics
• Amino acids


  The building blocks of proteins
• Enzymes increase reaction rates by decreasing activation energy
• Enzymes


  • Biological catalysts that lower the activation energy required to initiate a chemical reaction, thereby speeding up the rate of the reaction
• Factors affecting enzyme activity

  • Temperature
  • pH
  • Substrate concentration
• Regulation of enzyme activity

  Competitive inhibitors, allosteric modulators, cofactors, and coenzymes