Genetic information found in the nucleus, containing coils of DNA
Gene
Short section of DNA that codes for a protein and controls a characteristic
There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell of the body, resulting in 46 chromosomes in total
Sex cells (gametes) have half the number of chromosomes, resulting in 23 chromosomes in total
Diploid number of chromosomes
Amount found in body cells (46 in humans)
Haploid number of chromosomes
Half the diploid amount (23 in humans), found in gametes
Cell cycle
1. Interphase
2. Mitosis
3. Cytokinesis
Mitosis
Chromosomes line up at the equator
Cell fibres pull each chromosome to either side
Two identical daughter cells form
Mitosis
Cell division that produces two genetically identical diploid daughter cells
Cell division by mitosis in multicellular organisms is important for growth, development, and replacing damaged cells
Mitosis is also a vital part of asexual reproduction
Cell differentiation
Cells specialising to perform specific functions
In animals, almost all cells differentiate at an early stage and then lose this ability
In plants, many types of cells retain the ability to differentiate throughout life
Cancer
Uncontrolled cell division resulting in a tumour
Percentiles
Charts used to measure the growth of an organism compared to others
Being in a high percentile (e.g. 90th percentile or higher) can indicate a health problem
Types of stem cells
Embryonic stem cells
Adult stem cells
Meristems in plants
Therapeutic cloning
Producing an embryo with the same genes as the patient to obtain embryonic stem cells
Benefits and problems of stem cell research
Can replace damaged/diseased body parts
Unwanted embryos from fertility clinics could be used
Research into differentiation
People may have religious/ethical objections
Contamination risk
Money and time could be better spent
Cerebral hemispheres
Responsible for consciousness, memory, intelligence, visual and sensory processing
Cerebellum
Responsible for controlling fine movements of muscles
Medulla oblongata
Responsible for maintaining basic autonomic bodily functions like breathing, digestion, swallowing, and sneezing
Doctors often need to look inside the brain to examine brain structure and function
Embryos from fertility clinics
Could be used as they would otherwise be discarded
Removal of stem cells
Results in destruction of the embryo
Research into the process of differentiation
Objections to using embryos for research
Religious
Ethical
Seen as interference with the natural process of reproduction
If the growing stem cells are contaminated with a virus
An infection can be transferred to the individual
Money and time
Could be better spent on other areas of medicine
Medulla oblongata
A small 'elongated' structure found in the brainstem, at the base of the brain, responsible for maintaining basic autonomic bodily functions such as breathing, digestion, swallowing and sneezing
CT and PET Scanning
Doctors can look inside the brain to examine brain tissue for injury and disease without cutting the skull open, which is highly invasive
CT scans
Fire X-Ray radiation at the brain from several different angles to generate a 3D image, useful for examining bleeding within the skull and damage to brain structures
PET scans
Use a radioactive 'tracer' injected into the blood, the scan is sensitive to the tracer so areas with greater blood flow are highlighted, useful for identifying cancerous tumours
Reasons investigating brain function and treating brain damage/disease is difficult
It is complex and delicate
It is easily damaged
Drugs given to treat diseases cannot always reach the brain because of the membranes that surround it
It is not fully understood which part of the brain does what
Cancerous tumours can form in the brain as in any other part of the body
Cancerous brain tumours
Can push against other structures and blood vessels, restricting their function, and are often buried deep in the brain or spinal cord making them difficult to remove
Nervous system response to stimuli
1. Receptor cells convert stimulus into electrical impulse
2. Impulse travels along sensory neurons to central nervous system
3. Information processed, appropriate response coordinated, impulse sent along motor neurons to effectors
4. Effectors carry out response
Reflex
Automatic response which takes place before you have time to think, important to prevent injury