Integrated Science

• Rocks


  • Combination of minerals bonded together in some way
  • Naturally occurring solids made up of geological materials
  • Materials: minerals, inorganic matter, organic matter
  • Permanent but rocks can change into other types of rocks for a long time
  • Change is the only constant in this world
• Types of rocks


  • Igneous
  • Sedimentary
  • Metamorphic
• Igneous rocks


  • Formed from molten rock/material that cools and hardens
  • Formed from hot, molted mass of melted rock materials = magma/lava
  • Magma: molten rock material is mostly formed in Earth's mantle
  • When it reaches the surface it is called lava
• Igneous rock formation environments

  • Extrusive
  • Intrusive
• Extrusive igneous rocks


  • Forms from lava that cools quickly above surface
  • Aka volcanic rock, named after vulcan
  • Small or no crystals
  • Originates from Latin term extrudere (thrust out)
• Intrusive igneous rocks


  • Formed from cold magma below the surface
  • Aka Plutonic named after Pluto
  • Identify by: large crystal size, dots, shiny
  • Originates from Latin term intrudere (thrust in)
• Igneous rock mineral composition

  • Light Silicate Minerals
  • Dark Silicate Minerals
• Light Silicate Minerals


  • Rich in potassium, sodium, calcium, silica
  • Ex. quartz, muscovite, mica, feldspar
  • Feldspar (most abundant mineral group, makes at least 40% of igneous rocks)
• Dark Silicate Minerals


  • Rich in iron and/or magnesium, low in silica
  • Ex. olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, biotite mica
• Major igneous rock groups

  • Granitic
  • Andesitic
  • Basaltic
  • Ultramafic
• Granitic igneous rocks


  • Aka felsic = feldspar + silica
  • Granite = most abundant igneous rock
  • Made up of mostly light colored silicates
  • Mostly found in continental crusts, extrusive
  • Contain 10% of dark silicate minerals like biotites
  • Phaneritic (Coarse-grained) = granite
  • Aphanitic (Fine-grained) = rhyolite
  • Dominant Minerals: quartz, Potassium Feldspar
  • Accessory Minerals: Plagioclase Feldspar, amphibole, muscovite, biotite
• Andesitic igneous rocks


  • Intermediate composition, fine grained
  • After the common volcanic rock, andesite
  • At least 25% dark silicate minerals
  • Made up of quartz, Potassium Feldspar, Plagioclase Feldspar, Amphibole, Biotite Mica, pyroxene
  • Found on continental crusts
  • Phaneritic (Coarse-grained) = diorite
  • Aphanitic (Fine-grained) = andesite
  • Dominant Minerals: amphibole, Plagioclase Feldspar
  • Accessory Minerals: pyroxene, biotite
• Basaltic igneous rocks


  • Aka mafic - magnesium and ferric/ferrum (iron)
  • At least 45% dark silicate minerals, calcium rich
  • Made up of Plagioclase Feldspar, Potassium Feldspar, pyroxene, Amphibole, olivine, quartz
  • Darker and dense = iron content, denser than granitic
  • Found on the ocean floor
  • Phaneritic (Coarse-grained) = gabbro
  • Aphanitic (Fine-grained) = basalt
  • Dominant Minerals: pyroxene, Plagioclase Feldspar
  • Accessory Minerals: Amphibole, olivine
• Ultramafic igneous rocks


  • Ferromagnesium = iron and magnesium
  • Aka peridotite
  • Rare on earth's surface, Intrusive
  • Made up of olivine, pyroxene, Amphibole, Plagioclase Feldspar
  • Mostly dark colored material
  • Main component of upper mantle of the earth
  • Phaneritic (Coarse-grained) = peridotite
  • Aphanitic (Fine-grained) = komatite (rare)
  • Dominant Minerals: olivine, pyroxene
  • Accessory Minerals: Plagioclase Feldspar
• Igneous rock groups A - D

  • 75% - 40% (Increasing silica, (SiO2))
  • Increasing potassium and sodium
  • Increasing iron, magnesium, calcium
  • 650c - 1250c (temp at which melting begins)
• Igneous rock textures


  • Fine grained
  • Coarse grained
  • Vesicular
  • Porphyritic
  • Pyroclastic
  • Glassy
• Fine grained igneous rocks


  • Very small crystals, need tech to see
  • Light, intermediate or dark in color
  • Forms: very fast cooling, less time for crystals to form
  • Ex. rhyolite, andesite, basalt, komatite
• Coarse grained igneous rocks


  • See crystals, no tech used, almost similar sizes
  • Formed: slow cooling of magma at a great depth
  • Ex. granite, diorite, gabbro, peridotite
• Vesicular igneous rocks


  • Has almost spherical shape voids (holes) - vesicles
  • Holes due to gas bubbles that escape as lava solidifies
  • Often formed in upper region of lava flow, fast cooling, preserves spaces created by expanding gas bubbles
  • Ex. pumice, rock that can float on water (vesicles), etc
• Porphyritic igneous rocks


  • Different sized crystals
  • Large crystals embedded in a bed of smaller crystals
  • Composed of 2 distinct size of minerals
  • Big crystals =phenocrysts(pheno=show, cryst=crystal)
  • Bed of smaller crystals = groundmass
  • Formed due to different rate of cooling of molten rocks
  • Ex. portion of magma solidified under for too long forming large crystals, magma erupted, other molten materials cooled quickly forming smaller crystals
  • Ex. granite, andesite and basalt porphyry
• Pyroclastic igneous rocks

  • Igneous rocks glued together by lava
  • Formed from merging individual rock fragments or pyroclastic materials ejected during explosive eruption
  • Aka fragmental texture
  • Fragments could be volcanic ash, molten blob, blocks
  • Ex. tuff/welded tuff, volcanic breccia
• Glassy igneous rocks


  • Texture like glass: smooth and shiny
  • Formed when volcanic material is ejected, cools fast
  • The particles (ions) freeze in place, no time to combine in an orderly manner to form a crystalline structure
  • Composed of unordered toms and resembles dark-manufactured glass
  • Ex. obsidian
• Sedimentary rocks


  • From sediments cemented together, Transported to different areas
  • Derived from Sedimentum – settling, nature of this rock
  • Formed from pre-existing rock and materials
  • Bits of materials (pre-existing rocks, minerals, remains of plants and animals) called sediments
  • Sediments settle in certain location, compacted and then cemented
• Compaction of sedimentary rocks

  • Sediments laid down by ice, wind or water in layers (beds)
  • In beds, sediment grains squash together for close contact
  • Compressing layers of sediments: freight weight of ovulating layers
  • Clasts forced closer together
• Cementation of sedimentary rocks

  • Water seeps in between grains, bringing dissolved chemicals
  • When water evaporates, chemicals left behind as crystals around edges of the grains, crystals cement the grains of sediment together to form rock
  • Fluids (groundwater) containin' ions fill in pore spaces between loose particles of compacted sediments
  • Fluids precipitate, leaving minerals that act as glue and cement = solid sedimentary rock
  • Groundwater moves between grains, leaves behind mineral deposits, bonding grains to each other
• Deposition of sedimentary rocks

  • Dropping of sediment in a new place, clasts are dropped
  • Ex. formation of an island, sand dunes
  • Formed through weathering and erosion
• Weathering

  • Breaking of rocks into smaller pieces
  • Agents: water, wind, ice, animals, gravity, plants
• Erosion

  • Transport of sediments,
  • Rocks eroded and washed away by wind and water
  • Agents: water, ice, wind, gravity
• Lithification

  Process where sediments transform into solid sedimentary rocks
• Types of sedimentary rocks

  • Detrital
  • Chemical and biochemical
  • Organic
• Detrital sedimentary rocks

  • Aka clastic rocks, in Greek: klastos = broken in pieces
  • Formed from fragments of weathered rocks like igneous
  • Fragments called detritus (wear away), form detrital
  • Can be formed from solid particles or dissolved materials
  • Mostly made up of clay minerals and quartz
• Detrital sedimentary rock textures

  • Coarse
  • Medium
  • Fine
  • Very fine
• Coarse detrital sedimentary rocks

  • Grain size: over 2mm
  • Sediment Name: Gravel
  • Rounded angular particles
  • Indicate origin of particles:not far from where sedimentary rocks are formed: edges and corners weren't scraped
  • Ex. Conglomerate, Breccia
• Medium detrital sedimentary rocks

  • Grain size: 1/16 to 2mm
  • Sediment Name: Sand
  • Ex. Sandstone, Arkose
  • Arkose: abundant in feldspar
• Fine detrital sedimentary rocks

  • Grain size: 1/16 to 1/256mm
  • Sediment Name: Silt
  • Ex. Siltstone
  • Fine-grained rock: clay-sized sediment mixed with slightly big silt sized grains
• Very fine detrital sedimentary rocks

  • Less than 1/256 mm
  • Sediment Name: Clay
  • Ex. shale/mudstone
  • Mainly composed of clay minerals
• Chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks

  • Formed from materials carried to bodies of water
  • Dissolved materials don't remain in that state for long
  • With right condition, materials can precipitate (settles out) through physical processes to form chemical sediments
• Types of chemical sedimentary rocks

  • rocksalt, chalk, dolomite
  • crystalline limestone
  • microcrystalline limestone
  • travertine
  • Chert
  • rock gypsum
  • rock salt
• Biochemical sedimentary rocks


  • Formed from shells & bodies of underwater organisms
  • Water-dwelling animals & plants extract and dissolve minerals to form shell/other hard parts
  • When they die, their skeletons or shells may gather on the ocean/lake floor
• Types of biochemical sedimentary rocks

  • fossiliferous Limestone
  • Coquina
  • Chalk