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• Sampling


  A small group of people or things taken from a larger group and used to represent the larger group
• Sampling


  Selecting units, like people or organizations, from a population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the population from which they were chosen
• Population


  The entire group that you want to draw conclusions about
• Sample


  The specific group of individuals that you will collect data from
• Sampling frame


  The actual list of individuals that the sample will be drawn from
• Sample size


  The number of individuals you should include in your sample depends on various factors, including the size and variability of the population and your research design
• Sampling methods


  • Probability sampling
  • Non-probability sampling
• Unit of analysis


  The smallest unit a researcher can use to identify and describe a phenomenon—the 'what' or 'who' the researcher wants to study
• Types of units of analysis

  • Individuals
  • Groups
  • Artifacts
  • Geographical units
  • Social interactions
• Types of probability sampling

  • Simple random
  • Stratified
  • Systematic
  • Cluster
• Simple random sampling


  Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
• Systematic sampling


  Individuals are chosen at regular intervals from the population list
• Stratified sampling


  Dividing the population into subpopulations (called strata) that may differ in important ways based on the relevant characteristic
• Cluster sampling


  Dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample then you randomly select entire subgroups
• Types of non-probability sampling

  • Purposive
  • Snowball
  • Voluntary
  • Convenience
  • Quota
• Purposive sampling


  Involves the researcher using their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research
• Convenience sampling


  A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to the researcher
• Voluntary sampling


  Voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of access. People volunteer themselves
• Snowball sampling


  If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via other participants
• Quota sampling


  Relies on the nonrandom selection of a predetermined number or proportion of units
• Slovin's formula


  Used to determine the sample size needed for a given population size and margin of error
• Data collection is the process by which the researcher collects the information needed to answer the research problem
• Decisions in data collection

  • Which data to collect
  • How to collect the data
  • Who will collect the data
  • When to collect the data
• Research instrument


  A device or tool used to collect data and facilitate observation and measurement
• Types of research instruments

  • Questionnaire
  • Interview
  • Observation
• Questionnaire


  A series of questions designed to elicit information, the most common type of research instrument
• Degree of structure of questions in a questionnaire

  • Open-ended
  • Close-ended or fixed alternative
• Types of close-ended questions

  • Dichotomous
  • Multiple
  • Rank-order
  • Rating
  • Checklist
• Types of interviews


  • Unstructured
  • Structured
  • Semi-structured
• Types of observation


  • Structured
  • Naturalistic
  • Participant
• Research instrument design means creating research instruments to obtain the most quality, reliable, and actionable results
• Open-ended questions


  Gives the respondents the ability to respond in their own words
• Close-ended or fixed alternative questions


  Allows the subject to choose one of the given alternatives
• Types of close-ended questions

  • Dichotomous questions
  • Multiple choice questions
  • Rank-order questions
  • Rating questions
  • Checklist questions
• Dichotomous questions


  Requires the respondent to make a choice between two responses such as yes/no, male/female, or married/unmarried
• Multiple choice questions


  Offers 3 or more choices
• Rank-order questions


  The respondents are asked to choose a response from the "most" to the "least"
• Rating questions


  The respondents are asked to judge something along an ordered dimension
• Checklist questions


  These are items that comprise several questions on a topic and require the same response format
• Types of interview


  • Unstructured interviews
  • Structured interviews
  • Semi-structured interviews