case studies

• El Niño


  • Caused by trade winds from western pacific to east weakening
  • Eastern pacific (Peru) - low pressure & heavy rainfall
  • Western pacific (Indonesia) - high pressure & warm, dry conditions
• El Niño in Indonesia

  • Prolonged drought - affect crops
  • Forest fires - billions of tonnes of carbon released
  • Bring disease and mosquitos
  • Warm oceans - lack nutrients - less fish - food shortage (100 mil)
• La Niña


  • Intensification of normal conditions - strong winds blowing offshore from south America to Indonesia - upwelling of nutrient = more fish
  • Australia: high pressure & strong winds
• Managing the impacts of El Niño/La Niña

  1. Sensors across the pacific to predict - allow Peru to stock up on food

  2. Countries with low economic stability to prepare & manage damage
• Typhoon Haiyan


  • Strongest typhoon to make land - Philippines 378 km/h
  • Category 5
  • 10 000 deaths: central province (Leyte)
  • Building's roofs & electricity pylons - destroyed
  • Seawater rise - 6m
  • + 4 million people affected
  • Hit hardest at poorer areas - no money to rebuild
• Management of Typhoon Haiyan

  1. Due to lack of signal - little info sent to world

  2. World food programme: $2 million in aid // 40 tonnes of biscuits

  3. Economic cost: $15 million

  4. Countries that contributed ($ millions): UK (131)/Japan(53)/Canada(40)/ USA(37)
• Spit formation


  • Longshore drift occurs from east - west: south coast
  • Sediment from: rivers// cliff erosion// off-shore
  • Longshore drift carries sediment westwards -> extents length of spit
• Spit formation in The Palisades, Jamaica

  • Region affected by tropical storms & hurricanes - damage coastline
  • 2004 hurricane Ivan - eroded 1m off the 2 height
• Managing spit formation in The Palisades, Jamaica

  1. Jamaican government & China harbour (CHEC) - repair & protect degradation

  2. CHEC - 65$ million - build rock revetment walls

  3. Road raised from 0.6 > 3.6 m above sea level

  4. Drainage system - remove excess water from rainfall

  5. 10 m wide boardwalk - built on harbour side

  6. Designed to last 100 years
• Soufriere Marine Management Area (SMMA)

  • Location: west coast, St Lucia, Caribbean Islands
  • Bordered by a narrow submarine shelf - diverse & productive reef
  • Agriculture & fishing - main source of employment/ income
  • Increase focus on tourism - constant conflict btw fishermen & tourist
  • 1995 - intro of SMMA - manage resources in area
  • SMMA: self-sustained NGO - authorised by government
  • Conserves and protects marine environment
  • Ensures sustainable use & development of area
  • 11km of coastline
  • Divided into 5 groups (marine reserves, fishing, yacht mooring, recreational use, multiple-use area)
• Importance of beaches: target for illegal mining (15%) // solid waste// infrastructure around beach// natural disasters
• Effectiveness of SMMA: increase fish caught // +biodiversity // less damage to coral reefs by humans
• Coral reefs (Cebu, Philippines)

  • Economic benefits - tourism - income for local people
  • Protect coastlines from strong current - waves & tropical storms
  • Reef fish - feed locals - source of protein
• Threats to coral reef biodiversity

  • Shallow reefs - tourists tempt it - souvenirs
  • Fuel spills - powerboats
  • Local sewage & surface run-off from farm fertilisers
  • Extraction of coral limestone - construction
  • Reef bleaching - acidification
• Sustainable management of coral reefs

  1. Sensitive sustainable management - protect for future generations

  2. Threatened species - policies applied to regain biodiversity

  3. Ban of dynamite use

  4. Education programmes

  5. Global co-operation - stop coral bleaching
• South China Sea


  Vital trade artery - 30% of the world trade - 3$ trillion
• Disputed territories in South China Sea

  • Paracel Archipelago (claimed by Vietnam & Taiwan - China insists is their property)
  • Spratly Islands (also claimed by Philippines, Vietnam & Taiwan): China built over coral reefs - artificial land - rich in oil & gas
• Approaches to moderate China's behaviour in South China Sea

  1. Legal: UNCLOS brought by Philippines - China's claim has no legal basis

  2. Diplomatic: China negotiates w ASEAN members individually

  3. Military: increased spending on defence across region - only USA can battle
• By 2030: south China sea will virtually be Chinese
• Shanghai


  • 1992 - 2% growth x yr
  • Population: 23M - 2 x 1987
  • Central city economic & cultural centre
  • Plan: turn the city into International Economic Hub
• Functions of Shanghai's CBD

  • finance/trade/retailing/recreation/tourism/media/ info service/little residence/business
• Changes in Shanghai's city structure

  1. Attempt to free pressure on city - 11 satellite towns growth points for city

  2. Transport infrastructure - 2 ports, 2 highways, 3 transport networks

  3. Busiest port in world - 590M tonnes x yr

  4. Key public transport - railway network (400km long) - 5M passenger a day
• Water and sanitation in Shanghai's suburbs and lower course


  Suburbs - intense farming

  Lower course - urban - industrial activities
• Piped water: 1990 - 40% // 2007 - 95% > 70% of housing have sewage services
• Increased demand of water in Shanghai

  Pollution & salt intrusion
• Low-capacity sewage system - direct to river
• Increased waste in Shanghai

  City grows = + waste incinerated - generates energy & pollution - 22 000 tonnes x day

  New plants introduced -> + waste incinerated - 35% to 75%
• Detroit


  Once USA 4th largest city - 1960s

  Now 1/4 of the city- reclaimed by nature - property fallen by 80%

  Declare bankruptcy - $27 000 x resident
• Causes of Detroit's troubles

  • Falling car sales - tax revenue/ shrinking population - rich move away

  Relayed on a 1 industry - black workforce came in

  1943 & 67 - race riots - inequalities in working conditions
• 1900-50 - general motors - manufacturing: pop ↑ from 300 000 to 1.8M 1950 - 700 000 2013
• 80% of population - no +than high school diploma
• Sparsely populated - difficult to provide services
• Effects of Detroit's troubles

  • 2013 - unemployment - 30%

  1/3 population - below poverty line

  81.6% population African-American

  1/2 of streetlights - stripped for copper

  Only 1/3 of city's ambulance are working
• Mexico City air pollution

  Visibility has decrease: 1940s - 100km // 2000s - 1.5 km

  Nitrogen dioxide levels - exceed international standards by 2/3 times

  Ozone levels - 2x higher than allowed limit

  Due to its altitude: incomplete combustion
• Managing Mexico City's air pollution

  Reducing ozone & PM10 by 10% - save $760M x year in: 33 000 ↓ hospital visits/4000↓respiratory admission/260 ↓ infant deaths

  Reduce use of private vehicles - one-day-stop programme

  Enforce engine maintenance standards - good condition vehicle

  Improve fuel quality - reducing lead & sulphur content

  Make catalytic converters compulsory
• Between 1990-2012 - ozone, CO, SO2 ↓ - use of public transport
• Azoteas Verdes


  Top of buildings - clear city's air (filters CO2, regulates office temps, soaks rainwater, reduce heat island effect, educate children on nature)

  20 000 sq m
• Bigger problems than climate - deprivation, crime, social impacts, poverty, political instability
• Traffic & noise pollution in London

  Despite reduction of air pollution - implementation of wider public transport - little to no change in noise levels (close to main roads)
• Managing traffic & noise pollution in London

  2003 - congestion charging

  2008 - low emission zones

  Designed to limit the number of cars entering the city