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• Constructing Europe: Institutions, Theories and Challenges in EU Politics
• World War 2 left Europe in ruins, with widespread destruction of infrastructure, economies and societies
• Cold War: The Ideological Conflict between the Soviet Union and its Western allies (USA) created a divided Europe, leading to political and military tensions
• End of Empire: European colonial powers faced the decline of their empires leading to a shift in global influence and priorities
• Rehabilitation of Germany: integrating Germany into a peaceful Europe was crucial to ensuring long-term stability and preventing the comeback of militarism
• After 1991: the concept of European integration arose with Europe aiming at fostering cooperation and unity to ensure lasting peace and economic stability. This led to the establishing of the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957 and later the EU in 1993
• The EU


  An International organisation, founded on treaties between European States
• Six countries formed the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), marking the first step towards economic and political integration in Europe


  1952
• The ECSC was established to regulate the coal and steel industries, which were crucial for military power at the time. By pooling these resources, the member countries aimed to prevent future conflicts, particularly between France and Germany
• On May 9, 1950, French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman made a significant declaration, proposing the creation of the ECSC. Schuman emphasized that this collaboration would make any war between France and Germany not only unthinkable but also practically impossible. His vision was that economic interdependence would foster peace and stability in Europe
• Acquis Communautaire


  A French term that refers literally to the Community patrimony. It is the cumulative body of the objectives, substantive rules, policies, and, in particular, the primary and secondary legislation and case law—all of which form part of the legal order of the EU. It includes the content of the treaties, legislation, judgments by the Court of Justice of the European Union, and international agreements. All member states are bound to comply with the acquis communautaire
• The EU is a political and economic union comprising 27 liberal-democratic countries. These member states collaborate through a structured and institutionalized decision-making system to achieve common goals and address shared challenges
• The EU has a population of over 446 million people, encompassing a combined territory of more than 4,000,000 square kilometers
• Agent of security


  The EU acts as a key agent of security, employing various procedural mechanisms and institutional structures to maintain stability and promote cooperation among member states
• Procedural Mechanisms


  The EU employs qualified majority voting and consensus norms to ensure effective and democratic decision-making among member states. These mechanisms facilitate cooperation and prevent any single country from dominating the decision-making process
• Institutions


  The EU's operations are overseen by a politically engaged bureaucracy, a directly elected co-legislature, and an active judicial system. This institutional framework ensures that the union functions efficiently, upholds the rule of law, and remains accountable to its citizens
• "Ever-closer union"


  The idea of the European Union (EU) progressing gradually towards a unified entity
• Neofunctionalist Definition


  • Integration happens step-by-step through functional cooperation. As areas like trade or economic policy integrate, this cooperation spills over into other areas, eventually leading towards a federal-like state
• Teleological Definition


  • Integration is driven by a purpose or end goal. It implies a deliberate and purposeful movement towards deeper political, economic, and social unity among EU member states
• Integration has not always progressed smoothly: European Defence Community (1950s): The failure to establish a joint defense policy highlighted early challenges. Eurosclerosis (1970s): Economic slowdowns and policy gridlocks slowed integration efforts
• Differentiated Integration: Some member states opt out of certain EU policies or initiatives, allowing for varying levels of participation and integration among EU countries
• The ability of member states to leave the EU, demonstrated by Brexit, challenges the notion of inevitable integration and underscores the voluntary nature of EU membership
• Main treaties that shaped the EU

  • Treaty of Paris (1951)
  • Treaty of Rome (1957)
  • Merger Treaty (Treaty of Brussels) (1965)
  • Single European Act (1986)
  • Treaty of Maastricht (1992)
  • Treaty of Amsterdam (1997)
  • Treaty of Nice (2001)
• Three-pillar structure


  Established by the Maastricht treaty in 1993 to organise the EU's activities into three distinct areas:

  Pillar 1: European Communities (EC) - handled economic, social and environmental policies, it basically incorporates the 3 founding treaties ECSC, Euratom, EEC into one known as the EC. = supranational governance so QMV

  Pillar 2: Common foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) - which makes it possible for the Union to take joint actions in foreign and security affairs (military matters) = decisions required unanimity ensuring that all member states had a say. = intergovernmental governance

  Pillar 3: Justice and Home Affairs policy (JHA) - dealing with asylum, immigration, judicial cooperation in civil and criminal matters, and customs and police cooperation against terrorims, drug trafficking and fraud. = intergovernmental and supranational governance = QMV
• Abolition of this three-pillar structure in 2009 by the Treaty of Lisbon, which integrated these areas into a unified EU, aiming to make the union's operations simpler and more cohesive
• The Lisbon Treaty, signed in December 2007 and entering into force in December 2009, represents a significant reform of the European Union's foundational treaties
• Institutional Changes


  European Parliament (EP) gained more powers, especially over the budget and in the decision to appoint the President of the European Commission. Clarified distribution of powers among the EU, member states, and shared competences. Allowed for the possibility of member states leaving the EU (Article 50)
• High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy

  Created a new role to represent the EU in international affairs. The High Representative is also the Vice-President of the European Commission and part of the Council of the EU, bridging multiple positions
• Legislative Procedures


  Strengthened the role of the European Parliament by expanding the co-decision procedure, now known as the Ordinary Legislative Procedure (OLP). This procedure gives equal legislative power to the European Parliament and the Council of the EU
• The Charter of Fundamental Rights was made legally binding, ensuring fundamental rights are protected across the EU
• Voting Procedures


  Extended the use of Qualified Majority Voting (QMV) in the Council of the EU. Simplified QMV to require 55% of member states representing 65% of the EU population to adopt decisions, making decision-making more efficient
• The Constitutional Treaty was an international treaty intended to create a consolidated constitution for the European Union (EU). It was signed by EU member states in October 2004 but ultimately failed to be ratified
• The Constitutional Treaty aimed to replace the complex set of existing treaties (like the Treaty of Rome and the Maastricht Treaty) with a single, more straightforward constitutional document. The goals were to enhance democracy, transparency, and efficiency within the EU
• Reasons for Failure of the Constitutional Treaty

  • Controversial Nature: The treaty was seen as promoting too much supranationalism, which many feared would lead to a loss of national sovereignty. The constitutional language and symbolic elements made it appear as though the EU was moving towards becoming a federal state, which was controversial and unsettling for some member states.

  Lack of Popular Involvement: There was little popular involvement in the treaty's creation, leading to a disconnect between EU institutions and the citizens. The failure of the Convention on the Future of Europe and the subsequent Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) to engage the public effectively contributed to its unpopularity.

  Rejection in Referendums: The treaty was rejected in referendums held in France and the Netherlands in 2005. The rejections were driven by various concerns, including fears over the loss of national sovereignty, economic issues, and general skepticism about the EU
• Following the rejection of the Constitutional Treaty, the EU drafted the Lisbon Treaty, which incorporated many of the reforms proposed by the Constitutional Treaty but avoided the controversial constitutional language and symbolic elements
• The way to the Lisbon Treaty

  Strategy 1: Bilateral Consultations - During Germany's presidency of the Council of the EU, extensive bilateral consultations were conducted with each member state to identify and avoid controversial points that could hinder agreement.

  Strategy 2: Depoliticization of the Debate - To reduce the political sensitivity of the treaty, the debate was depoliticized by involving legal bodies. Legal experts provided advice on the text of the treaty, ensuring that it complied with national legal requirements and confirming that a referendum was not necessary in many countries.

  Strategy 3: Avoiding "Constitutional" language - The Lisbon Treaty was presented as an amending treaty rather than a new constitution, and the language and presentation emphasized its role as a minor, technical adjustment to existing treaties
• Enlargement process


  A natural phase of European Integration, involving the expansion of the EU by admitting new member states
• Enlargement policy


  Formalisation of enlargement process since the Eastern expansion by the introduction of specific criteria for accession to the EU and a process of monitoring (Copenhagen Criteria)
• The EU's enlargement policy is seen as a tool for peacebuilding and stabilization without a clear roadmap to full membership. Candidate states face a complex domestic context compared to successfully accessed states
• Accession process


  Before the eastern enlargement, the EU accession process was simpler because there were fewer members and lesser negotiations charters. Conditionality: if candidate countries meet the EU's requirements, they are allowed to join the EU, candidates must fulfil specific political, economic and legal criteria, if the conditions are not met, the EU can reject the accession application