Topic 7: Ideology and science

• Science as a belief system- impact of science

  Sciences are enormous impact on society over the last few centuries in medicine, transport, communications. science and technology has revolutionised economic productivity and raised our standards of living. this has resulted in a widespread faith in science that it can deliver effective change

  • However, faith has become dimmed by recognition that science may cause problems as well as solve them Eg Pollution and weapons of mass destruction of the product of science
• Science as a belief system- impact of science

  Science protected us from natural dangers such as disease and famine it’s created its own manufactured risks but threaten the planet

  • but, both the good and the bad effects of science demonstrate cognitive power distinguishing it from other belief systems
  • Meaning science enables us to explain, predict and control the world in a way non-scientific or pre-science belief systems can’t
• Science as a belief system- open belief systems

  Popper- argue science is an open belief system where scientist theories are open to scrutiny and criticism

  • Science is governed by falsificationism Meaning scientists set out to try and falsify existing theories seeking evidence to disprove them. If evidence from an experiment contradicts theory and shows it to be false, the theory can be discarded and the search for a better explanation can begin.
• Science as a belief system- open belief systems

  In poppers disregarding false fight knowledge claims is what enables scientific understanding of the world to grow. Scientific knowledge is cumulative building on the achievement of previous scientist to develop a greater understanding of the world

  • No theory is to ever be taken true there’s always a possibility that someone will find evidence to disprove it which popper views as the key thing about scientific knowledge (it can always be tested, questioned and criticised)
• Science as a belief system- the CUDOS norms

  Functionless Merton argues science can only thrive as major social institution if it receives support from other institutions. He argues this occurred in England, England as the result of the values and attitudes created by the Protestant reformation especially Puritanism (a form of Calvinism).

  • puritanism stressed social welfare and they were attracted by the fact that science could produce technological inventions to improve conditions of life. The new institution of science received support from economic and military institutions.
• Science as a belief system- the CU DOS norms

  Merton argues, like popper that science as an institutional organised social activity needs an ethos or set of norms that makes scientist act in waves that serve the goal of increasing scientific knowledge. he identifies for norms known CUDOS:

  • Communism- scientific knowledge isn’t private property scientist must share it with the community otherwise knowledge can’t grow
  • Universalism- the truth of scientific knowledge is judged by universal objective criteria
• Science as a belief system- the CUDOS norms p2


  Disinterestedness- being committed to discovering knowledge for its its own sake, having to publish findings makes it harder for scientist to practice fraud since it enables others to check their claims

  • Organised scepticism- no knowledge claim is regarded as sacred, every idea is open to questioning, criticism and objective investigation
• Science as a belief system- closed belief systems

  Horton Believe science is an open system, meaning it is fundamentally different to religion,

  • he argues religious knowledge is seen by its followers as sacred knowledge and therefore is unquestionable and perfect knowledge that’s not open to scrutiny
  • Religious beliefs can’t be challenged they are fixed
  • System such as religion, magic and the supernatural have get out devices which reinforce the system and prevent it from being disproved in the eyes of their believers
• Science and religion- Azande tribe 


  Azande natural events have a natural cause they don’t believe in coincidence or chance and explain it in terms of witchcraft, someone is practising witchcraft against me

  • injured party will go to the Prince magic poison Oracle, the princes diviner will administer a potion to a chicken if it dies The accused is a witch then they can go in publicly demand the witchcraft to stop
  • this is usually enough to stop the problem as they view psychic power coming from a substance located in the witches intestines
• Science as a belief system- witchcraft among the Azande

  Evans Pritchard argues this belief system performs usual functions: clear the air, prevents grudges, encourages neighbours to behave and reduces the risk of accusation

  • Since they believe Whitcraft hereditary children have vested interest in keeping their parents in line as a successful accusation against their parents damages their reputation
  • As the belief system is important as a social control mechanism insuring conformity
• Science as a belief system- witchcraft among the Azande 


  The belief system is highly resistant to challenges as it’s a system that cannot be overturned by evidence believers a trap with their own idiom of belief, they accept the systems basic assumptions (witchcraft) they cannot challenge it
• Science as a belief system: closed belief systems- self sustaining ties

  Polanyi argues all belief systems have three devices to sustain themselves in the face of apparently contradictory evidence

  1. Circularity- each idea in the system is explained in terms of another idea within the system and so on round and round
  2. Subsidiary explanations- eg in the Azande if the Oracle fails it may be explained away as due to the incorrect use of the potion
  3. Denial of legitimacy to rivals- belief systems reject alternative world views by refusing to grow on any legitimacy to their basic assumptions
• Science as a belief system- science as a closed system

  Some argue science can be seen as self sustaining or a close system of beliefs. Polanyi argues all belief systems reject fundamental challenges to their knowledge claims, science is no different as the Dr Velikovsky case suggests

  • he published a book in which he put forward a new theories on the origins of the Earth, scientist rush to reject it out of hand without having read the book and scientist who called for a fair hearing of the theory to be put to the test with victimised and lost their jobs
• Science as a belief system- science as a closed system

  Kuhn argues a mature science such as biology or physics is based on a set of shared assumptions that he calls a paradigm Which tell scientists what reality is like, what problems to study and what methods and equipment use ect

  • the paradigm lays out the outlines of the scientist job those who do it successfully are rewarded with bigger research grants, professions ships and noble prizes
  • Scientific education is a process of being socialised into faith in the truth of the paradigm and a successful career depends on working with it
• Science as a belief system- science as a closed system

  Any scientist who challenges the fundamental assumptions of the paradigm like Veilikowsky did it likely to be ridiculed and pushed out of the profession

  • The only exceptions are during one of the rare periods that Kuhn a scientific revolution when faith in the truth of the paradigm has already been undermined by the accumulation of anomalies (results the paradigm can’t account for)
  • Only then a scientist open to radically new ideas
• Science as a belief system- the sociology of scientific knowledge

  Interpretive sociologies developed Kuhns ideas arguing all knowledge including scientific knowledge is socially constructed. It’s created by social groups using resources available to them

  • in the case of science, scientific facts- things that scientist take to be real and true are the product of shared theories or paradigms tell them what they should expect to see
• Science as a belief system- the sociology of scientific knowledge

  Knorr-Cetina argues the invention of new instruments such as telescopes or microscopes permit scientist to make new reservations and fabricate new ideas.

  Argues what scientist study in the laboratory is highly constructed and far removed from the natural world they’re supposed to be studying
• Science as a belief system: the sociology of scientific knowledge- little green men


  According to the enthomethodologist Woolgar, scientist are engaged with the same process of making sense of the world as everyone else when confronted by evidence from their observations they have to decide what it means, doing so by applying theories. However, they must persuade others to accept their interpretation.
• Science has a belief system: the sociology of scientific knowledge-little green men

  the discovery of pulsars researches at the Cambridge astronomy lab in 1967 the scientist initially annotated the patterns shown on radio telescope as LGM1/2 standing for little green men

  • Realising this was an unacceptable interpretation from the viewpoint of the scientific community they eventually settled on the notion that the patterns represented the signals from a type of star unknown science (as it would’ve finished their careers had they published it)
• Science as a belief system: Sociology of scientific knowledge- little green men


  As woolgar notes scientific fact is a social construction that scientists persuade their colleagues to share
• Science as a belief system: sociology of scientific knowledge- Marxism, feminism and postmod


  Critical perspective, such as Marxism and feminism see scientific knowledge as far from the truth. They regard it as serving the interest of dominant groups, the ruling class and men.

  • Therefore, many advances in supposedly pure science have been driven by the need of capitalism for certain types of knowledge
  • Biological ideas have been used to justify both male domination and colonial expansion so science has seen as a form of ideology
• Science as a belief system: sociology of scientific knowledge- postmodernism

  Postmodern reject the knowledge claims of science to have the truth. in the view of Lyotard science is only one of a number of metanarrative that falsely claim to process the truth

  • Other mat narratives include Marxism, religion and psychoanalysis
  • They argue science falsely claims to find the truth about how the world works where is in reality it’s just a way of thinking that’s used to dominate people
• Ideology- marxism and ideology

  Society is divided into two classes, the rolling class and the means of production and control the state and the working class are forced to sell their labour to capitalism and exploited for profit

  • This argue before revolution can take place the working class must develop class conscience
  • This is difficult as the RC control economy and ideas in society
• Ideology- Marxism

  Ruling class ideology, justifies exploitation by arguing

  1. Equality will never work as it goes against human nature,
  2. Victim blaming ideas about poverty come from the theory of meritocracy poor think they are poor because they’re stupid or lazy
  3. Racist ideas divide black and white ppl making them easier to control

  • This creates false class consciousness and prevents social change however Marx believes ultimately the working class will develop a class consciousness and overthrow capitalism
• Ideology- Marxism, hegemony and revolution


  Gramsci And Neom Marxist refers to the ruling class ideological domination of society as hegemony

  • He argues working class can develop ideas that challenge role in class hegemony as they have a dual consciousness, mixture of rulling class ideology and ideas created by their own experiences of exploitation
  • It’s therefore possible for them to develop class consciousness and overthrow capitalism but they need political organisations and direction to realise their exploitation, run by organic intellectual, workers who develop class consciousness
• ideology- Marxism, hegemony and revolution criticisms


  Critics argue it’s not the existence of ideology that keeps workers in line and prevent the overthrow of capitalism

  • Abercrombie argues its economic factors such as the fear of unemployment that keeps workers from rebelling
• ideology- nationalism


  Claims that:

  • Nations are real, distinctive communities with its own unique characteristics and long shred history
  • Every nation should be self-governing (not a fan of multinational organisations such as the UN or EU)
  • Loyalty to the nation should come before religion, class ethnicity
  • Anderson argues a nation is an imagined community, not a real one. Although we identify with it will never know most of it members, the community bind millions of people together in a shared sense of common purpose.
• ideology: nationalism- Marxism, nationalism as a false consciousness


  Argues nationalism is a form of false class consciousness helping prevent the overthrow of capitalism by dividing the international working class

  • as nationalism encourages workers to believe they have more in common with the capitalists of their own country than with the workers of other countries
  • Enabling ruling class of each capless country to persuade the working class to fight wars on their behalf
• Ideology: nationalism- functionalism, nationalism as a civil religion


  They see nationalism as a secular civil religion, it integrates individuals into larger social and political units making them feel part of something greater than themselves

  • Modern secular societies people may be unwilling to believe in supernatural beings but willing to see themselves as part of a nation
  • Modern society contain diff faiths But nationalism functions as a civil religion uniting everyone into a national community
  • Ed promotes social solidarity doing rituals involving nationalist symbols eg national anthem
• Ideology: nationalism- Gellner nationalism and modernity


  Gellner is nationalism as false consciousness, it’s claim that nations have existing since time is untrue. He argues nationalism is a modern phenomenon. Pre-industrial societies were held together not by nationalism but with face-to-face relationships in small scale communities with a fixed hierarchy of a described statuses.

  • Modern society is different, industrialisation creates large scale, impersonal societies with complex divisions of labour by vast bureaucracies were all citizens are relatively equal (eg law)
• Ideology: nationalism- Gellner nationalism and modernity


  modern societies need something to enable communication between strangers to take place, especially in the economy

  • Nationalism makes this possible by using a mass state education system to impose a single standard national culture and language on every member
  • Nationalism regards everyone is making economic and social cooperation between them easier
  • Elites use nationalism as an ideology to motivate the population to endure hardships and suffering
• Ideology- Karl Mannheim ideology and utopia


  He argues all belief systems have one-sided well view from a particular group or class and it’s interests

  • He distinguishes between two types of worldview:

  1. Ideological thought- justifies keeping things the way they are benefits privileged groups which benefit from maintaining status quo so their belief system tends to be conservative favouring hierarchy
  2. Utopian thought- seek social change, reflects the interest of the underprivilege and shows different ways of organising society. E.g. Marxists
• Ideology- Karl Mannheim ideology and Utopia


  He argues all world views are partial, their creations of intellectual who attached themselves to a group or social class

  • They don’t reflect society or interest as a whole the leaf system of each class or group only provide partial truth
  • This is a sort of conflict
  • Differential intellectual, link to different groups and classes produce opposite ideas that justify the interest claims of their group against others
• Ideology: Karl Mannheim, ideology and utopia- free floating intelligentsia


  In his view the solution was to attach individuals from the social groups they represent and create a non-aligned or free floating intelligentsia standing above conflict

  • Free from representing interest of this will that group, they’re able to synthesise the elements of different partial ideologies and utopia to create a total worldview representing interests of society as a whole
  • However, as elements of different political ideologies are opposed from one another it would be hard to imagine these synthesised
• Ideology- feminism, and ideology


  Gender inequality as the fundamental division in society and patriarchal ideology justifying it

  • Gender difference is a key feature of all societies, there are different justify ideologies
  • eg marks science has been used to justify exclusion from education, it was believed that education would lead to a new punity and unfeminine race that distract women from their true vocation
  • some patriarchal religious believes and practices have been used as a justification to define women as inferior
  • Say women are impure and unclean due to childbirth and menstruation