psychology

• Learning


  A relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience. May not be absolutely permanent but is relatively permanent because it can be modified. Can occur intentionally or unintentionally. Learning can refer to a change in behaviour potential (we know stuff but don't use it) as well as actual action
• Learning cannot be directly observed or measured. Researchers observe behaviour and then infer about the learning that has taken place.
• So you got zero for a test. Does that mean you learnt nothing?
• Classical conditioning


  A simple form of learning, which occurs through repeated association of two (or more) different stimuli. Learning is said to have occurred when a particular stimulus consistently produces a response that it did not previously elicit. Learning results from involuntary linking of this stimulus, over a number of trials, with a stimulus that normally produces the response automatically.
• Ivan Pavlov


  • Developed equipment to measure the amount of saliva that dogs produced in response to food being placed in front of them. He noticed that the dogs started to salivate as soon as the technician who fed them entered the room, before the food even appeared. He therefore experimented with other stimuli to see if they also produced salivation. Originally the dogs had no natural response to these stimuli, but eventually they started to unconsciously salivate at the stimulus because of repeated association with the food.
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)


  Any stimulus that consistently produces a naturally occurring, automatic response.
• Unconditioned Response (UCR)


  A response which occurs automatically when the Unconditioned Stimulus is presented. It's a reflexive involuntary response that is caused by the UCS.
• Neutral Stimulus (NS)


  Stimulus that does not normally produce a predictable response. It's the name given to the conditioned stimulus before it becomes conditioned.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)


  The stimulus which is neutral at the start of conditioning. It wouldn't normally produce the Unconditioned response (UCR), but does so eventually because of its association with the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS).
• Conditioned Response (CR)


  The behaviour which is the learned response that is produced by the CS. The CR occurs after NS is associated with the UCS and becomes a CS. The CR is very similar to the UCR but it is triggered by the CS.
• Classical conditioning as a three-phase process

  1. Before conditioning

  2. During conditioning

  3. After conditioning
• Classical conditioning in real-life


  • Jims dog gets excited when it sees him pick up the lead to go for a walk
  • When Guppy went to her friends party she had a great time. At the party the wiggles hit 'big red car' was played a number of times. Now when Guppy hears this song she gets a good feeling
• Operant conditioning


  A type of learning whereby the consequences of behaviour determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future. An organism will tend to repeat a behaviour which has a desirable consequence (eg. a treat) OR that will enable it to avoid undesirable consequences (such as getting a detention). An organism will tend not to repeat a behaviour that has undesirable consequences (such as disapproval or a fine).
• B.F. Skinner


  • Trained mice and pigeons to perform certain behaviours (pressing a lever or matching a coloured panel and coloured light) by rewarding them with food each time they carried out the correct behaviour. Through the connection with the desired food, the animals actively learned to voluntarily change their behaviour.
• Stimulus


  An environmental factor that triggers a response in an organism
• Response


  An observable emotional, mental or behavioural reaction to a stimulus
• Skinner box


  Skinner's learning box for rats. Each time a particular light went on, the rat had to press the lever to receive a reward. In some boxes, an electric shock could be given as punishment through a metal grid in the floor.
• Operant


  Any response that acts on the environment to produce some kind of consequence. Since the consequence occurs in the environment, the environment determines whether or not the operant occurs. Involves voluntary responses (eg. smiling, listening to music, watching TV, etc)
• Three-phase model of operant conditioning

  1. Antecedent

  2. Behaviour

  3. Consequence
• Antecedent


  The stimulus that precedes a specific behaviour, signals the probable consequences for the behaviour and therefore influences the occurrence of the behaviour. Antecedent stimulus enables the organism to predict the likely outcome of their behaviour.
• Behaviour


  The voluntary action that occurs in the presence of the antecedent stimulus. Could be one action or a pattern of actions. It involves activity that has an effect on the environment in the form of a consequence which follows it.
• Consequence


  The environmental event that occurs immediately after the behaviour and has an effect on the occurrence of the behaviour. Behaviour that is followed by a consequence will change in strength (become more or less established) and frequency (occur more or less often). Behaviour followed by a reward strengthens the behaviour and makes it more likely to occur again. Behaviour followed by a punishment weakens the behaviour and makes it less likely to occur again. The nature of the consequence can depend on the individual.
• Reinforcement


  Occurs when a stimulus strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a response that it follows. May involve using a positive stimulus (eg. giving your dog a treat after they shake hands during training) or it may involve removing a negative stimulus (eg. using a umbrella to prevent yourself from getting wet). Reinforcement is only used after the desired or correct response is made.
• Positive reinforcement


  A stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a desired response by providing a satisfying consequence. Involves giving or applying positive reinforcer after the desired response has been made.
• Negative reinforcement


  Any unpleasant or aversive stimulus that, when removed or avoided, strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a desired response. Involves the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus, it has the effect of thereby increasing the likelihood of a response being repeated, thereby increasing the response.
• Positive reinforcement


  A stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a desired response by providing a satisfying consequence
• Positive reinforcement


  Involves giving or applying positive reinforcer after the desired response has been made
• Positive reinforcement


  • Placing a hungry rat in a Skinner box and conditioning them to press a lever to obtain a food pallet- pressing the lever (correct response) would result in getting a food pallet (desirable consequence) increasing the likelihood that the rat will press the lever in the future
• Negative reinforcer


  Any unpleasant or aversive stimulus that, when removed or avoided, strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a desired response
• Negative reinforcement


  Involves the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus, it has the effect of thereby increasing the likelihood of a response being repeated, thereby increasing the response
• Negative reinforcement


  • Using an umbrella on a rainy day to avoid wet clothes. If the umbrella kept you dry it would increase your likelihood of using an umbrella when it rained again
  • A rat in a skinner box receives a electric shock through the floor, it can press a lever to stop the electric shock occur. The removal of the shock is negative reinforcement and makes it more likely that the rat will press the lever in the future
• Positive reinforcers are given (+) adding something pleasant, Negative reinforcers are removed and avoided (-) subtracting something unpleasant. Both procedures lead to desirable consequences, each strengthens the behaviour that produced the consequences. Meaning the behaviour is more likely to be repeated in the future!
• Punishment


  The delivery of an unpleasant consequence following a response, or the removal of a pleasant consequence following a response
• Punishment


  • Getting a speeding ticket for exceeding the speed limit
• Punishment weakens the response or decreases the probability of the response occurring again over time</b>
• Positive punishment


  Involves the introduction of a stimulus, thereby decreasing the likelihood of a response occurring again
• Positive punishment


  • Adding an electric shock for a rat in a Skinner box, having to do extra chores at home after misbehaving
• Negative punishment


  Involves the removal or loss of a stimulus and thereby decreasing the likelihood of a response occurring again
• Negative punishment


  • Taking food away from a rat in a Skinner box, having your phone taken away by your parents for misbehaving
• The purpose of punishment is to prevent the behaviour from reoccurring