Theorists

• Who is Piaget?

  A Swiss developmental psychologist. He suggests that cognitive development is a child's ability to learn and solve problems. Research focused on how children acquire the ability to think. Suggested that a 4 year old cannot use abstract logic because they are not mature enough. Believes the ability to think logically does not happen until age 7 when children use simple logic.
• What is abstract logical thinking?

  Abstract logical thinking is the ability to solve problems using imagination without having to be involved practically. Advanced form of thinking.
• What are Piaget's stages of cognitive development?

  Sensorimotor(birth-2years) - infants think by interacting with the world by using their sensers.

  Preoperational(2-7years) - children use symbols to represents their earlier sensorimotor discoveries. Development of language and make-believe play take place.

  Concrete operational(7-11years) - children's reasoning becomes logical providing that the issues are concrete. May be able to understand simple logical principles.

  Formal operational(11-18years) - Think through complicated ideas in their head.
• What is Piaget's development of schemas? 


  Stages of intellectual development that children go through are referred to as schemas. A child develops a concept about the world around them (state of equilibrium) as they experience new situations where new information is presented, their schemas are upset and they reach a state of disequilibrium.

  Assimilation = constructs a schema

  Equilibrium = child's experience fits with their schema

  Disequilibrium = new experience disturbs the child's schema

  Accommodation = child's schema changes to take account of the new experience.
• What is Piaget's conservation?

  children in the operational stage understand theory of conservation = somethings appearance may change but its quantity will stay the same.

  By the age of 7 they have the ability to understand that when you move liquid from a wide container to a tall thin container it does not affect the volume. Younger children believe that the amount of fluid has changed.
• What is egocentric thinking?

  Egocentric thinking means they can only understand the world from their own perspective. Young persons ability to see a situation from another point of view.

  Swiss mountain test = showing children a three-dimensional model of a mountain and asking them to describe what a doll that is looking at the mountain from a different angle might see. Children tend to choose a picture that represents their own, rather than the doll's view.
• What are the criticisms of Piaget?

  • work was based on a small number of children from specific geographical area.
  • Bruner did not agree with Piaget's notion of fixed stages. - Believed that with adult support children can be helped to progress to higher level thinking skills.
  • Vygotsky and Bruner would rather not talk about stages - see development as continuous process.
  • Piaget failed to consider social setting (Bandura) and culture
  • He has underestimated/overestimated children cognitive development
• Who is Chomsky?

  • believed that ability to develop a signed or spoken language is genetically programmed into individuals. fluent in first language by age 5or6.
  • individuals are born with LAD enables children to recognise and develop the languages they experience. 'programmed' to talk just as they will be able to walk.
  • Believes that a child could not learn language through imitation alone because the grammar is highly irregular.
• What are the criticisms of Chomsky?

  • lack of scientific evidence to support his theory
  • Bruner argued that social interaction is critical and has more influence than Chomsky suggested.
  • Did not take into consideration children who experience delayed language development - learning disability or speech impairment.
• What is Bowlby's theory of attachment? 


  His theory originated in the 1930's. Deep + enduring emotional bond that connects a child to their primary caregiver. Worked as a child psychiatrist - began to consider a child's relationship with their mother. Linked the importance of social, emotional + cognitive development to the development with their mother. Biologically pre programmed to form attachments + infancy is a crucial period for forming attachments. Led Bowlby to consider problem's associated with early separation from the primary caregiver.
• What did Bowlby observe when working with James Robertson?

  Working with James Robertson, Bowlby observed that children experienced separation anxiety. Childs anxiety did not disappear when being fed by another carer. Infants have a universal need it seek close proximity with their caregiver when under stress.
• What are criticisms of Bowlby?

  • Bowly oversimplified his theory
  • Rutter argues that maternal deprivation may not result in long term problems. - Privation is more damaging.
  • Privation happens when children have not had the opportunity to form attachments or have poor quality attachments caused by a lack of social or intellectual stimulation.
  • Bowlby believed that attachment is a natural, biological process, others suggest it is learned by environment, culture or babys temperament.
  • nature v nurture.
• What is deprivation, Privation and separation anxiety?

  Deprivation = being deprived of a caregiver to whom an attachment already exists.

  Privation = being deprived of the opportunity to form an attachments.

  Separation Anxiety = fear and apprehension that infants experience when separated from their primary caregiver.
• What is Schaffer and Emerson's theory of attachment?

  Babies are most likely to form attachments to caregivers who respond to their signals. - not always the person that they spend the most time with. Referred to as sensitive responsiveness.

  Most important factor is who plays and communicates with them.
• What are the criticism's of Schaffer and Emerson attachment?

  Low population validity

  Infants in the study all came from Glasgow and were all mostly working class families.
• What is Mary Ainsworth's secure attachment?

  Parents are in tune with the child and their emotions.

  Will show distress when primary caregiver leaves and greets them when they return. Seeks comfort from caregiver when upset, happy with strangers when caregiver is present.
• What is Mary Ainsworth's insecure/avoidant attachment?

  Unavailable to child/rejects them. Does not show distress when caregiver leaves, continues to explore the environment and may go to a stranger for comfort.
• What is Mary Ainsworth's insecure/resistant attachment?

  Inconsistent in meeting the child's needs. Shows distress when primary caregiver leaves but resists contact on their return, shows anxiety and insecurity.
• Why might attachment not go smoothly?

  Prematurity - premature baby is in incubator they cannot be picked up and help.

  Post-natal depression - depressed after birth so may affect ability to bond with her baby.

  Separation - impact baby's sense of identity.

  Foster care/adoption - experience inconsistency of caregivers

  Emotional unavailability - parents struggling with their role

  Disability - find it harder to attach to a baby with a disability and may struggle with their feelings.
• What are the 4 stages of behaviour suggested by Bandura?

  Attention = notices behaviour of another person

  Retention = internalises the action by remembering what they have observed

  Reproduction = reproduce behaviour when opportunity occurs

  motivation = depending on the outcome (positive or negative reinforcement) children will either repeat the behaviour or desist
• What is Banduras social learning theory?

  Bobo doll experiment. Children show adults being aggressive or non-aggressive towards bobo doll. Children would copy aggressive behaviour of another person, outcome for the adult impacted on the likelihood of children coping the behaviour. Children learned behaviour through observation. Children were more likely to imitate an adult who was rewarded for aggressive behaviour than one who was reprimanded.
• Gesell's maturation theory


  Arnold Gesell, psychologist + paediatrician was interested in children's biological maturation. Growth determined by genetically determined physiological process

  1. Observed a large number of children

  2. Found skills and abilities that most children had in each age group

  3. Developed norms or milestones
• Gesell's maturation theory


  • Development was pre determined
  • Environment has little influence
  • If a child experiences delayed development then problem is hereditary rather than result of child's environment + circumstances
  • Helpful for educators + parents to measure children's development + to recognise developmental delay
  • It is important to recognise individual differences in children that are influenced by environmental factors
• Criticism of Gesell's maturation theory


  Suggest maturation theory is not helpful in explaining individual or cultural differences or for children with learning difficulties.
• What is nature v nurture and maturation?

  NATURE - are we born the way we are + do the things we do? genetic inheritance + other biological factors. Children are genetically pre-programmed have inherited skills from parents.

  NURTURE - does the way we are brought up + how we are influenced by our surrounding make us the way we are? influence of external factors after conception such as social + environmental factors. Characteristics can be shaped through experiences. - Banduras social learning theory

  Maturation - genetically programmed sequence of change eg onset of menopause.
• What is the stress-diathesis model?

  explains how both nature + nurture play a part in development of psychological disorders.

  Nature - Diathesis = predisposition to mental disorders due to abnormality of the brain or neurotransmitters (genetic/biological factors)

  Nurture - Stresses = traumatic events in persons life eh relationships, abuse, culture (environmental factors)
• What is the authoritative parenting style?

  parents are not overly strict, children are brought up to respect authority + develop appropriate values + boundaries. Children in these households are often more resilient + conform easily to social norms of society.
• What is authoritarian parenting style?

  parents have very high expectations, often overwhelming their children with strict rules + regulations.

  Children in these households are rebellious and may become problematic in family home and wider social setting.
• What is permissive parenting style?

  make few demands and may be reluctant to implement rules or values into the lives of their children.

  Lack a sense of self-control as they have no set boundaries or respect for personal space - children may later experience problems in managing relationships + adult responsibilities.
• What is uninvolved parenting?

  characterised by parents who are not involved in their children's lives. Make few demands of them + lack responsiveness.
• What is Holmes-Rahe social readjustment rating scale?

  developed a questionnaire called social readjustment rating scale which identified major stressful life events. Identifies 43 life events with a different score for a stress level. Each individual is unique + deals with stress in differnat ways. Holmes + Rahe assumed that each stressor would affect people in the same way.
• Criticisms of Holmes-Rahe social readjustment rating scale

  not necessarily true for some people the breakdown of a relationship + getting divorced can be a stressful time yet for others it can be a relief.

  Major life events are not experienced very frequently but they can still experience stresses + strains in daily life. - referred to as dial hassles.
• What is social disengagement theory?

  In 1961 psychologists Cumming + Henry proposed that older people naturally withdraw from social involvement as they get older. They concluded that older people have restricted opportunities to interact with others.

  Cumming argued that older people experience reduced social contact + become increasingly individual + less concerned with others expectations. She concluded that it is appropriate + healthy behaviour + that disengagement is a natural part of ageing.
• What is social disengagement theory?

  Bromley agreed, although some individuals fight the process all the way, disengagement of some sort is bound to come, simply because old people have neither physical or mental resources they had when they were young.

  Bromley argued that older people needed to disengage but remain active. Argued that providing facilities for older people was not enough + they should be shown how to use them + encouraged not to have negative attitude's or fixed habits.
• What is social disengagement theory?

  Bromley felt it was important to remain mentally active, maintain an interest in life + enjoy the company of others.

  There is little statistical evidence that supports the theory.

  Majority of older people remain socially active + involved with family + friends. Many older people become more involved with close family + friends.

  Many researchers don't agree with disengagement theory , there was not internet or phones when the theory was first proposed.

  Technology helps older people to communicate with friends + family.
• What is the activity theory?

  Robert Havighurst was responsible for activity theory in the 1960's. His ill health study of older people showed that rather an inevitable decline in interest in life + isolation, older people tend to adjust to the aging process. Assumption that social and psychological needs of older people remain the same. Recognised that this may involve adjusting to changes in health or mobility but theorised that older peoples needs can be satisfied by taking on new roles following retirement such as charity work, social groups or learning a new skill.
• Activity theory - research

  Older people look forward to retirement - have the opportunity to have new hobbies, interests + meet new friends. People remain physically + socially active their overall satisfaction + wellbeing is increased. Important for reducing the risk of illness + increasing longevity. Theory is that older people need to engage in telling their life story, reminiscing or reviewing their life to help create self-esteem + confidence.
• Activity theory - research

  Coleman argued some types of reminiscence therapy can be useful, helping individuals cope with effects of aging. Wide differences in individuals needs.