Parliamentary Reform 1867-85

• Prior to 1867, the Commons still reflected the makeup of the Lords to an extent, most MPs were friends or relatives of the aristocrats ‘Cronyism’ commonplace
• 1832 Reform Act seen to be a landmark in history, provided the backdrop to further reform

  Pinpointed Britain’s move to a more democratic society, extension of franchise and representation to the middle class (some became MPs)

  Growth in numbers reflected their desire to take a share in the aristocracy’s power
• However even beyond these provisions, parties largely remained a wealthy man’s occupation, MPs were unpaid and election fees/campaigning could be extortionate 
• Aristocracy held a social, economic and political monopoly over the masses, were typically in parliament to protect their own interests, and thus were keen to maintain their dominance

  Corruption common, voting carried out in hustings (public platforms), landed elite able to evict people if they didn’t vote for their preferred candidate
• Whilst the extension of franchise to m/c men and subsequent integration of them into the political system proved to be a step forwards, the majority became acclimated to the landed interests and ruling elite, making them satisfied to not pursue a further extension of the franchise 
• Liberals only effectively established in 1865, comprised of the Whigs, Radicals, Liberals and Peelites, previously Whig party had been dominated by the landed elites however commercial and industrial m/c gaining influence, reflected in the party composition 
• Increased standards of living, combined with the improved education standards and opportunities for ‘thrift’, such as the friendly societies and post office savings provided ammunition to the idea that the w/c were responsible enough to hold the right to vote

  (Gladstone particularly impressed by this)
• Population growth coupled with increasing urbanisation meant the size of constituencies were very uneven

  Led to large underrepresentation in urban areas, and overrepresentation in rural ones
• Demographic changes were forcing the issue of franchise and parliamentary reform onto the agenda, with a political necessity for the party in power to attempt to tackle it 

  Liberals had a particular vested interest to an extension in the number of seats, to solidify their political influence as an emerging party
• Radicals maintained pressure for reform both inside and outside Parliament, galvanising the masses with speeches from individuals such as Bright (Birmingham MP), would tour the country, encouraging local men to demand their democratic rights
• Writings of John Stuart Mill (Libertarian/ Philosopher/ MP) were influential in raising debate and interest over the principle of extending the franchise 

  Also attempted to introduce an amendment to the 1867 bill, allowing women a Parliamentary vote, heavily defeated however 73 MPs seen to vote for it
• American Civil War in the 1860s and Movement for Italian Unification seen by many Brits as struggles for freedom and democracy, thus were instrumental in creating a surge of interest in reform
• 1864 Garibaldi visit excited crowds in London, encouraging the Radicals to further capitalise on this interest

  Thousands flocked to hear him speak, and authorities clamped down on the meetings, prompting protests in response

  Directly led to the setting up of the Reform League 
• Reform League:

  • Predominantly w/c in nature, with strong TU support and elements of m/c backing
  • Advocated for universal suffrage and more radical reform, with local branches emerging across manufacturing towns

  The less successful Reform Union had been set up a few months earlier, with largely m/c demographic calling for redistribution of seats/ secret ballot, both encouraged to work together by Bright, however class divisions prevented
• After Palmerston’s death (he was opposed to further reforms) Russell and Gladstone presented a moderate and well thought out Reform bill (Russell had been one of the driving forces behind the 1832 bill)

  • Aimed to provide the vote to skilled workers, largely in industrial towns, however some rural ones too

  Bill defeated by the Liberals themselves, despite expected opposition from the Conservatives instead, Whig faction claiming it would provide the vote to the ‘ignorant’

  Lowe opposed it considered the bill’s ‘greatest critic’ - considered to be living in a ‘cave’ by the rest
• Russell resigned over the bill, Derby and Disraeli replaced him and formed a minority govt

  ‘Dishing the whigs’ phrase emerges, shows the Liberals being served on a plate to Queen Vic, after Disraeli and Derby introduce the reform they were meant to implement 

  NO party discipline, people voted as they pleased (paid for their own elections so no incentive)
• Effects of bad harvests in the year prior, new outbreaks of Cholera, increased unemployment as a result of a stock market tumble created widespread w/c frustrations, prompting Disraeli and Derby to swiftly implement a new bill

  Mounting external pressures most likely motivated opportunistic Disraeli to seize the moment, taking credit for an originally Liberal reform
• Due to feared opposition against the bill and minority govt, Disraeli was prompted to accept Hodgkinson's Amendment, which proposed to abolish compounding, meaning all ratepayers, whether they owned or rented property, would be enfranchised

  This extended the franchise far beyond Disraeli’s initial desires

  He was able to pass this through the Lords by promising them it would ensure a Conservative victory in the next election, and suggesting this was in their best interests
• 2nd Reform Act 1867 - who it enfranchised

  • All male householders (who had lived there for 1yr)
  • Lodgers who paid £10 in rent (lived for 1yr)
  • Redistribution of seats, taken from boroughs with 2 and small populations, given to heavily populated industrial towns and Scotland
• Hodgkinson’s Amendment demonstrated Disraeli’s opportunist nature, resulted in a further shift of power away from the ruling elite, surprising as was not typically seen to be in con interests to do this

  Hodgkinson's Amendment added 500k people to the electorate

  Disraeli viewed this through a long term lens, to challenge the traditional perception of the Con party as anti-reform, and to win over the skilled w/c in the next election (didn't happen)
• Derby described the 2nd Reform Act as a ‘leap in the dark’, uncertainty of the allegiance of the newly enfranchised voters and their overall effect on the political system
• Electorate increased from 1m to 2.5m, ⅓ of the male population

  Largely extended franchise to boroughs rather than the counties, skilled workers more concentrated there

  Disraeli said he wanted to ‘rid of urban contamination’
• Limited nature of the reform in regard to redistribution in particular (rural/urban divide)

  • Birmingham/ Manchester/ Liverpool only given one extra seat, distribution failed to be in proportion to population size
  • Rural seats still overrepresented, failed to resolve the issue of Scotland
  • Exclusion of agricultural workers maintained 

  Indirectly resulted in education reform, believed to be better to have an educated electorate
• Disraeli used his success in implementing the 1867 Act as reflective of his ‘One Nation Conservatism’. However, post 1867, reforms were largely needed to rectify the deficiencies in the political system that had been highlighted from the 2nd Reform Act
• Legislation largely based on party politics interests, as opposed to a higher democratic principle, however nonetheless society did benefit from it

  Often lacked a party consensus, thus private members bills seen to be ideal ways of introducing reforms
• 1870 Leatham, Bright’s associate, introduced a Private Member’s Bill for voting by secret ballot. Gladstone was opposed to this as believed on principle that voting should be done by conscience, with a responsibility to explain your choice

  However, wanted to avoid conflict with the Radical faction, so bill passed as the Secret Ballot Act in 1872
• Impact of the 1867 Act

  • Discrepancies and ambiguities within the provisions of the act, such as the nature of defining ‘dwellings’
  • Compounding issue proved most detrimental to Con’s position, indirectly resulted in a larger extension of the franchise, as seen to be administratively impossible to prevent
  • Ultimately, extent of influence due to act largely determined by factors external to the direct provisions meaning, sometimes enfranchised groups it had aimed to exclude
• 1877 Birmingham Liberal Association created, all 3 seats in Birmingham held by Liberals, dismissed by Disraeli as a ‘Birmingham Caucus’, radicalism of the group resulted in a split between Chamberlain and Gladstone

  However, long term may have been more detrimental to the fate of the Liberals 
• Entreating seen to be common in elections, often would last over multiple days and thus people would offer food/drink to voters as a form of persuasion

  Corruption of voters increased, however provisions of Secret Ballot Act made this futile, corrupters would be unaware of who the electorate would truly vote for
• 1883 Corrupt and Illegal practices Act

  • Set limits on election spending, required official accounts by parties on it
  • Both Liberals and Con had equal interests in establishing it
  • 1874 election famed for corruption and violence, Chamberlain had a dead cat thrown at him
• Gladstone largely preoccupied with Ireland, however Liberals were united at this point, as Whigs had recognised it was in their best interests to extend the rural vote in their favour, Liberals pledged to do this in 1877, however Gladstone seen to be slow to implement it, so resulted instead in the 1884 Rep of the People Act (3rd Reform Act)
• Chamberlain was pushing for universal male suffrage, however Gladstone instead pledged to end this urban/rural divide, by extending the franchise to rural

  Conservatives were threatened by this, viewed it as a loss for them, and therefore forced Gladstone to negotiate a redistribution of seats to offset this
• 1884 Rep of People Act

  • Advocated for single member constituencies, detrimental to Liberals as allowed people to elect Radicals and Whigs alongside one another, however benefitted Con as meant they would be able to have more urban support
  • Tory Villas emerged in London, 67/75 boroughs benefitted from ratepayers dominating the boroughs 
  • Electorate doubled to 5m from 2.5m
• 1885 Redistribution of Seats Act

  • Rectified the issues of 1867
  • Under-represented Lancashire with only 14 seats, for instance, now had 58 seats in proportion with their heavily populated industrial nature
• Long term effect, however, meant communities divided by socioeconomic means, largely m/c or w/c, thus massively influential on party politics and nature of representation, still constituencies that have voted for certain parties since 1832
• Only 40% increase in agricultural worker's franchise versus 134% increase in rural worker's
• Boundaries were changed to remove urban areas from counties 'rid of urban contamination', allowed the con to gain 25 seats