1-3 for Final

• Connective tissue


  •Cells are loosely arranged in a liquid, gel, or solid matrix.

  •The matrix is secreted by the connective tissue cells.
• Loose connective tissue

  • Soft and fibrous matrix
  • Loose tissue
  • Ex: adipose/fat
• Dense connective tissue


  • Matrix made of tough collagen fibers, holds tissue tightly
  • Ex: tendons/ligaments
• Supporting connective tissue

  • Firm matrix
  • Structural support and protection
  • Ex: bone/cartilage
• Fluid connective tissue

  • Liquid matrix
  • Transport materials throughout body
  • Ex: blood (plasma = matrix)
• Nervous tissue


  Neurons transmit electrical signals
• Muscle tissue


  • Movement
  • Contractile proteins with complex spatial organization
• Types of muscle tissue

  • Skeletal
  • Smooth
  • Cardiac
• Skeletal muscle


  • Attaches to bones
  • Voluntary
  • Most body movements
• Smooth muscle


  • Digestive tract and blood vessels
  • Tapered cells
  • Involuntary
• Cardiac muscle


  • Walls of heart
  • Pumps blood
  • Connected, branching cells for coordinated contraction
  • Involuntary
• Epithelial tissue

  Lining of organs, skin, and glands. Tightly packed layers.
• Plant tissues


  • Dermal
  • Ground
  • Vascular
  • Meristematic
• Dermal tissue - plants


  • Protection, secretion, transport
  • Epidermal cells - cuticle
  • Stomata - open/close to regulate gas and water exchange, have guard cells
  • Trichomes - specialized hair cells; reflect sunlight, limit transpiration, trap/digest insects, toxin defense against herbivores
• Ground tissue - plants


  • Make and store food (carbohydrates)
  • Photosynthesis
  • Parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma
• Parenchyma - plant ground tissue


  • Thin primary cell walls
  • Photosynthesis in leaves
  • Store starch in roots
• Collenchyma - plant ground tissue


  • Uneven primary cell wall
  • Flexible to support growing parts
• Sclerenchyma - plant ground tissue


  • Thin primary cell wall, thick secondary cell wall (lignin)
  • Support mature parts
  • Dead at maturity
• Vascular tissue - plants


  • Transport materials
  • Xylem (water and nutrients, roots to shoots)
  • Phloem (sugar etc, shoots to roots and roots to shoots)
• Meristematic tissue - plants


  • Plant stem cells that differentiate into other types via mitosis
  • Apical (increase length)
  • Lateral (increase girth)
• Apical meristems - plants


  • Increase length, primary growth at root and shoot tips
  • Protoderm - dermal tissue
  • Ground - ground tissue
  • Procambium - vascular tissue
• Lateral meristems - plants


  • Increase girth, secondary growth in cylinders along root/shoot length
  • Single layer of meristematic cells
• Water potential

  • High to low water potential
  • Low to high solute concentration
  • More concentrated solutions have lower water potential
  • Sum of solute, matric, and pressure potential, solute and matric potential always negative
  • Movement stops when both sides of membrane are isotonic and when turgor pressure + solute potential = the external water potential
• Solute potential determines direction of osmosis

  A) hyper

  B) hypo

  C) iso

  D) shrinks

  E) swells

  F) osmosis

  
• Pressure potential


  Sum of turgor and wall potential, opposing forces

  • Wall pressure 0 in animals, 0 or + in plants
  • + prevents water entering cell by resisting cytoplasmic expansion
• Water loss in plants - adaptations


  • Close stomata in dry conditions, more stomata on shaded side of leaves
  • Trichomes to reduce evaporation by wind/sun
  • Leaf shape - rolling (limits evaporation), upright (less radiation), wax (better seal), smaller/thicker leaves (lower SA/V ratio)
  • Longer roots in dry soil
  • Water storage organs
  • C4 photosynthesis (CO2 storage)
  • Antioxidants to fight free radicals
  • Life cycle changes
• C4 Photosynthesis


  • CO2 storage when stomata are closed
  • C4 - C3 compound, releases CO2 to perform photosynthesis
  • Only advantageous in hot and dry climates, uses ATP
• Water regulation in different environments

  • Freshwater: aquatic and organisms are hypotonic, gain water. Must release water.
  • Saltwater/marine: aquatic and organisms are hypertonic, lose water. Must conserve water.
  • Terrestrial: organisms are hypertonic, lose water. Must conserve water.
• Nitrogenous waste in animals

  • Initially form toxic ammonia
  • Ammonia: highly water soluble, requires a lot of water to excrete, high toxicity, low cost of synthesis. Bony fishes, aquatic invertebrates - urine and gills.
  • Urea: somewhat water soluble, requires some water to excrete, medium toxicity, high cost of synthesis. Mammals - urine and shark gills.
  • Uric acid: poorly water soluble, requires little water to excrete, low toxicity, high cost of synthesis. Reptiles, insects - feces.
• Mammalian kidney

  Urine production

  • Renal artery brings blood with nitrogenous waste
  • Renal vein takes clean blood away
  • Made of cortex (corpuscle for filtration and tubules for reabsorption) and medulla (loops of Henle for reabsorption) to form nephron unit
  • Pathway: Kidney - ureter - bladder - urethra - excretion
• Mammalian kidney diagram

  A) water

  B) solutes

  C) water

  D) solutes

  E) passive

  F) passive

  G) active
• Descending limb: water out, solutes remain

  Thin ascending limb: water remains, solutes out

  Thick ascending limb: water remains, solutes out (active)
• Cohesion-tension theory - plants


  How water moves through a plant (xylem)

  • Vapor diffuses out of leaf
  • Water evaporates inside leaf
  • Cohesion pulls water out of xylem and into leaf
  • Cohesion and capillary movement pull water up xylem
  • Water pulled out of root cortex and into xylem
  • Water pulled from soil to root (root pressure)
  • Powered by negative pressure (higher in roots, lower in leaves)

  Soil - root - root cortex - xylem - leaf - atmosphere
• Translocation - plants


  • The movement of sugars through the phloem
  • Bulk flow from source (high pressure) to sink (low pressure)
  • Powered by positive pressure
  • High concentration in sources, low concentration in sinks
  • Summer: leaves are sources that produce sucrose, roots/tubers are sinks that convert sucrose to starch
  • Winter: leaves are sinks that use sugar for growth, roots/tubers are sources that convert starch to sucrose
  • Phloem structure allows sugar movement via sieve tubes (no nuclei) that are connected end-to-end and have companion cells
• Gas exchange in fish - gills

  • Countercurrent exchange (blood flow through capillaries moves opposite to water flow over gills)
  • Large surface area and thin epithelium to maximize gas exchange
  • Capillaries in thousands of gill lamellae (increase SA/V)
  • Most efficient respiratory structure in animals, absorbs 90% of oxygen from water
• Oxygen pathway from atmosphere to cell - animals

  • Ventilation: air or water move to specialized surface
  • Diffusion at respiratory surface: oxygen into blood, CO2 into atmosphere
  • Circulation: transportation of oxygen and CO2 throughout body
  • Diffusion at tissues: oxygen into tissues, CO2 into blood
  • Cellular respiration: uses oxygen, produces CO2 (mitochondria)
• Lung ventilation in mammals

  • Negative pressure
  • Mouth/nose - trachea - lung [bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli]
  • Alveoli increase SA/V for gas exchange. Gas diffuses through thin layers, ECM, and capillary walls.
  • Ventilation occurs under homeostatic control
• Open vs closed circulatory system

  A) Open

  B) Closed

  C) vessels

  D) tissues

  E) circuit

  F) vessels

  G) diffuse

  H) high

  I) direct

  J) specific

  K) Low

  L) sedentary

  M) active

  
• Fish vs terrestrial vertebrate hearts

  A) One

  B) Two

  C) Pulmonary

  D) Systemic

  E) lungs

  F) heart

  G) heart

  H) body

  I) Two

  J) Three

  K) four

  L) body

  
• Benefit of two circuits - vertebrates

  • More efficient gas exchange
  • Capillaries in alveoli and lungs too thin for high pressure to overcome gravity
  • Separation allows high-pressure systemic circuit (body) and low-pressure pulmonary circuit (lungs and heart)