Revision Patho

• Thyroxine secretion pattern


  Constant secretion ensures a consistent level of the hormone in the bloodstream to regulate metabolism and energy production
• Cortisol secretion pattern


  Episodic pattern because it is influenced by the body's circadian rhythm, helps with stress response, energy regulation, and immune function, with higher levels in the morning to kickstart the day
• Epinephrine secretion pattern


  Episodic pattern because it is released in response to stress or excitement, helps prepare the body for fight-or-flight responses
• Gene mutation associated with clear cell renal carcinoma


  VHL (von Hippel-Lindau) gene mutation
• Progression to cervical cancer

  1. Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN)

  2. Squamous cell carcinoma in situ (CIS)
• Thyroid disorder T3/T4/TSH levels compared to normal

  • Hyperthyroidism: T3 and T4 high, TSH low
  • Primary Hypothyroidism: T3 and T4 low, TSH high
  • Secondary Hypothyroidism: T3 and T4 low, TSH low or normal
• Autoimmune thyroid disease associated with exophthalmos

  Graves' disease
• Blood pressure values for pre-treatment and treatment cut-offs in hypertension

  • Pre-treatment: Systolic 120-140mmHg or higher, Diastolic 80-90mmHg or higher
  • Stage 1 hypertension: Systolic 140-160mmHg or higher, Diastolic 90-100mmHg or higher
• Pathogenesis of atherosclerosis

  1. Lipoprotein deposition

  2. Inflammatory reaction

  3. Smooth muscle cap formation

  4. Necrotic core formation with plaque vulnerability
• Cardiac biomarker facts

  • CK-MB not stable, levels fluctuate rapidly
  • Cardiac troponin highly sensitive and accurate, remains elevated for days
  • Pro-BNP cut-off values vary by age
  • ANP secreted by atria, BNP by ventricles, CNP by vascular endothelium
• Front-line drug classes for hypertension treatment

  • ACE inhibitors and ARBs
  • Diuretics
  • Calcium channel blockers
• Components of Virchow's triad for thrombosis

  • Intravascular vessel wall damage
  • Stasis of flow
  • Presence of a hypercoagulable state
• Pathophysiology of Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD)

  Fluid-filled cysts develop in the kidneys, causing them to enlarge and lose normal function, due to genetic mutations affecting kidney cell development and function
• Common causes of chronic renal failure

  • Diabetes
  • Hypertension
• Clinical symptoms of chronic renal failure

  • Fatigue
  • Irregular heartbeat
  • Nausea
  • Decreased urine output
  • Shortness of breath
• Laboratory findings in chronic renal failure

  • Serum Albumin: Reduced
  • Serum K+: Elevated
  • Serum Ca++: Reduced
  • Blood Urea: Elevated
• Causative organisms and potential complications of pelvic inflammatory disease

  • Organisms: Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhea
  • Complications: Infertility, Chronic pelvic pain
• Symptom not attributed to Uraemia in chronic renal failure is Hiccups
• Thyroid hormone regulation


  • A: TRH (thyrotropin-releasing hormone)
  • B: TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone)
  • C: T3 and T4 (T3 = triiodothyronine, T4 = thyroxine)

  
• ACTH and cortisol levels in thyroid disorders

  • Cushing's disease: ACTH high, Cortisol high
  • Cushing's syndrome: ACTH low, Cortisol high
  • Addison's disease: ACTH high, Cortisol low
  • Hypopituitarism: ACTH low, Cortisol low

  
• Modifiable risk factors for Type 2 Diabetes

  • Unhealthy diet
  • Lack of physical activity
  • Excess body weight or obesity
• Stages of fatty liver disease

  • A: Fatty Liver - fat accumulates in the liver
  • B: NASH - fat plus inflammation and scarring
  • C: Cirrhosis - scar tissue replaces liver cells

  
• Cytokines involved in asthma inflammatory response

  IL-4, IL-5, IL-13 released by Th2 cells and mast cells, act on eosinophils, B cells, and airway epithelial cells
• Spirometry findings indicating COPD

  Reduced FEV1 and reduced FEV1/FVC ratio
• Process of EMT in lung fibrosis

  Transformation of epithelial cells into mesenchymal cells, contributing to fibrotic tissue accumulation
• Sample types obtained by different methods

  • Sputum: Coughed up phlegm/mucus
  • Lavage: Fluid from washing the lungs
  • Biopsy: Lung tissue sample
  • Lung surgery: Various samples
• How steroids modulate inflammatory responses

  Suppress production of inflammatory molecules and inhibit immune cell activity
• How the stomach prevents auto-digestion

  Gastric mucosa secretes mucus and bicarbonate to create a barrier against acid and enzymes
• Most serious end stage GI outcome

  Gastrointestinal bleeding, bowel perforation, or sepsis, arising from untreated infections, prolonged inflammation, or complications
• Types of ileus, causes, and diagnosis

  Paralytic ileus from surgery, meds, electrolyte imbalances; Mechanical ileus from blockages; Diagnosed by imaging, exam, history
• Barium is useful for diagnosing lots of gastrointestinal conditions
• Gastrointestinal (GI) issue

  Conditions like gastrointestinal bleeding, bowel perforation, or sepsis
• Serious end stage outcomes for a gastrointestinal (GI) issue can arise due to factors like untreated infections, prolonged inflammation, or complications from underlying conditions
• Ileus

  Different types include paralytic ileus and mechanical ileus
• Paralytic ileus

  • Can be caused by factors like surgery, medications, or electrolyte imbalances
• Mechanical ileus

  • Can result from physical blockages in the intestines, such as tumors or adhesions
• Diagnosis of ileus

  Typically involves imaging tests like X-rays or CT scans, along with a physical examination and medical history evaluation
• Barium

  Useful for diagnosing gastrointestinal disorders like ulcers, strictures, tumors, diverticulosis, and certain types of bowel obstructions
• Barium swallow tests


  Evaluate the esophagus and stomach
• Crohn's disease


  Caused by an overactive immune response in the gastrointestinal tract, leading to chronic inflammation