research methods

• Methods are what psychologists use to conduct their research. There are two areas of methods, what are these?

  Experimental Methods and Non-Experimental Methods
• Outline what experimental methods consist of

  Lab, natural, field and quasi experiments
• Outline what non-experimental methods consist of

  Correlational analysis, observations, case studies and self report (interviews and questionnaires)
• Outline a lab experiment and evaluate it

  Conducted within a lab which has high control over the environment.

  :) - High level of control over variables meaning that extraneous variables are likely to be controlled and thus a cause and effect relationship can be established between IV and DV

  :) - High reliability of results due to the tight control over variables meaning that it can be repeated and findings can be checked for consistency

  :( - It lacks ecological validity as it takes place in a very fake setting, with possibly a fake task, therefore making it hard to generalise the results to other environments or settings

  :( - It can encourage demand characteristics as participants know they are being watched/recorded and thus they change their behaviour based on clues on what the aim is, to suit what the researcher wants to see, this affects the accuracy of the results
• Outline a field experiment and evaluate it

  Takes place in a real environment such as a school, and there is then an IV that is manipulated to effect the DV.

  :) - Less prone to demand characteristics as people may not know they are taking part is an experiment and thus will display natural behaviour

  :) - High ecological validity as the setting is real life meaning the findings can then be generalised to other settings beyond the study

  :( - It lacks reliability in the findings as it is done in a setting where there is little control over confounding variables meaning it is difficult to replicate it and get consistency in results

  :( - Ethical issues can arise when conducting a field experiment as people are not aware they are taking part and thus there is no informed consent that they are giving to be able to study them, therefore there is risk that the participants will not want their results used and thus must be removed
• Outline a natural experiment and evaluate it

  In a real setting with a naturally occurring IV, for example looking at the effect of stress after an earthquake hits a city.

  :) - Participants show no demand characteristics at all as at the time of the IV occurring they did not know about the study as this will show natural behaviour

  :) - Very high ecological validity as it is set in a real environment and nothing is controlled, so therefore you are able to generalise the findings beyond the setting of the study

  :( - It lacks reliability as there is zero control over variables meaning that it is difficult to replicate the experiment and get consistent results

  :( - Due to the lack of control over extraneous variables it is very difficult to establish a cause and effect relationship and thus this reduces the internal validity
• Outline a quasi experiment and evaluate it

  Quasi experiments have an IV that is based on an existing difference between people such as age, no one has manipulated this variable and it exists on its own, for example comparing achievement level of first-born children with that of later-born children.

  :) - They are often carried out in controlled conditions and therefore they share similar strengths to that of a lab experiment

  :( - Like natural experiments participants cant be randomly allocated to experimental conditions so there may be confounding variables such as individual differences
• Outline the 7 types of observations and for each evaluate them

  Controlled observation - this is where the conditions are manipulated by the researcher and may be carried out in a laboratory

  :) - High level of control over variables meaning that extraneous variables are likely to be controlled and thus a cause and effect relationship can be established between IV and DV

  :( - It can encourage demand characteristics as participants know they are being watched/recorded and thus they change their behaviour based on clues on what the aim is, to suit what the researcher wants to see, this affects the accuracy of the results

  
  

  Naturalistic observation - Simply watching a natural behaviour in a natural environment, no intervention occurs at all

  :) - No room for demand characteristics as people do not know they are being watched and thus wont change their behaviour

  :( - They are almost impossible to replicate and this makes it lack reliability as ow level of control over extraneous variables therefore it is hard to check for consistency

  
  

  Covert observation - This is where the participants are not aware they are being observed (one way mirror/CCTV)

  :) - No room for demand characteristics as people do not know they are being watched and thus wont change their behaviour

  :( - Ethical issues can arise as people are not aware they are taking part and thus there is no informed consent that they are giving to be able to study them, therefore there is risk that the participants will not want their results used and thus must be removed

  
  

  Overt observation - Participants are aware they are being observed

  :) - This avoids ethical issues arising

  :( - It can encourage demand characteristics as participants know they are being watched/recorded and thus they change their behaviour based on clues on what the aim is, to suit what the researcher wants to see, this affects the accuracy of the results

  
  

  Participant observation - The observer becomes involved in the activities of the participants and researchers take a more hands on approach to investigate the behaviour. This can be disclosed or undisclosed to the participants

  :) - Allows the researchers to gain more qualitative in depth data into the behaviour

  :( - The researchers are at risk of researcher bias and thus objectivity within the results gained, this lowers the validity of the results

  
  

  Non-Participant observation - The observer watches from a distance and does not become actively involved in the activity

  :) - Less risk of researcher bias

  :( - Less in depth information gained into the behaviour and thus less understanding into the psychological behaviour of humans
• Outline what an interview is and what types of interviews there are and evaluate each

  An interview is a method for asking people questions in a face to face nature which sometimes may be over the phone/computer and is good for collecting qualitative information

  :) - Detailed quality information can be obtained which is better than quantitative data which lacks human meaning, and thus we get a better insight into human behaviour

  :) - Participants freely express themselves allowing them to be honest in their answers

  :( - Social desirability can occur where participants lie to present themselves in the best possible light, this is more likely if the topic is of high sensitivity

  :( - Extremely time consuming to conduct hundreds of interviews unlike a questionnaire that can just be sent to thousands of people

  
  

  Structured interview - This is where questions are designed in advance with the aim of structuring participants responses, the interviewer would follow a script.

  :) - Less likely to deviate from the topic and thus easier to analyse the results

  :( - No follow up questions if a new line of enquiry appears

  
  

  Unstructured interview - May contain a topic area for discussion but no set questions. Provides highly detailed data but is hard to analyse

  :) - Effective for when the interview can adapt the questions based on the answers

  :( - More affected by interviewer bias as the interviewer will be coming up with questions on the spot which may be less objective/leading
• Outline what a questionnaire is and evaluate it

  Questionnaires form part of surveys which involve asking a large sample of people a series of questions to collect information on a particular topic

  :) - Participants can remain anonymous and this therefore means they are less likely to lie thus allowing psychologists to gain an insight into more sensitive topics

  :) - Can easily be repeated and distributed this can gain a large sample of people quickly and cheaply allowing for results to be more accurately generalised

  :( - Social desirability

  :( - Misinterpretation from both sides where the participants may answer the question wrong or the researcher may understand what the participants answer is
• Outline what a case study is and evaluate it

  It is an in depth study conducted into one small group or person. They can be over a long period of time and are often used alongside other techniques

  :) - Has high ecological validity as the environment is real therefore you can generalise the findings beyond the setting

  :) - As case studies use a large variety of techniques to collect data the data they collect is in depth qualitative data that provides rich information into the insight of the behaviour

  :( - Lacks population validity as it is usually only done on one person or a small group of people with unique characteristics and thus is difficult to generalise to the rest of the population

  :( - Often the data collected is retrospective about past events meaning that evidence required to make full conclusions may be missing or incorrect
• Outline and evaluate correlational analysis

  It is a research method which aims to study the relationship between two or more variables.

  :) - There is no necessary need for the manipulation of the variables and therefore it can investigate issues that are not practical to setup in a lab

  :) - It can provide valuable insight into the strength of a relationship between variables that can aid further research

  :( - It is impossible to establish a cause and effect as it is simply just a link between two variables, there is a lack of control as you cant account for extraneous variables, this lowers the internal validity

  :( - Also, whilst a relationship may exist it is unknown which variable is the cause and which is the effect
• Outline what extraneous and confounding variables are with the different types

  If extraneous variables are not controlled in an experiment they interfere with the cause and effect between IV and DV and potentially ruin the results, an extraneous variable that is left uncontrolled is then known as a confounding variable

  
  

  Participant Variables

  These are any characteristics of individual participants that could affect the DV such as age/gender/IQ

  
  

  Situational Variables

  These are features of a research situation that may influence participants behaviour such as order effects/time of day/noise levels/demand characteristics

  
  

  Participant Effects

  This is when participants actively seek clues about how to behave as they may want to be helpful such as social desirability
• Outline what investigator effects are and the three main types

  This results from the effects of the researchers behaviour on an investigation causing participants to act differently

  
  

  Experimenter Bias

  Every researcher has an expectation of what they expect to find and thus they may unconsciously influence the situation via body language/facial expressions

  
  

  Observer Bias

  Just the presence of an observer being there can cause participants to behave in a different manner to normal

  
  

  Interviewer Bias

  When carrying out an interview the presence of the interviewer may influence the participants response
• Outline and evaluate the three experimental designs

  Independent Measures Design

  This is where different participants take part in each condition of the IV ie. one group drinks redbull one group doesn't

  :) - There will be no order effects

  :) - It can be used when repeated measures design is inappropriate

  :( - Errors may occur due to the individual differences not being controlled which could then act as confounding variables and ruin the results gained, reducing internal validity

  :( - You need more participants unlike repeated measures

  
  

  Repeated Measures Design

  In this design every participant will take part in every condition of the IV

  :) - Individual differences between participants are removed as potential confounding variables

  :) - Requires fewer participants

  :( - Order effects may results in the participants becoming bored or better after the first IV

  :( - Participants are more likely to guess the purpose of the study, picking up on clues from the researcher and thus changing their natural behaviour

  
  

  Matched Pairs Design

  Matching each participant in one of the experimental conditions as closely as possible with another participant in the second condition ie. age/gender/IQ

  :) - Controls the individual differences of participants unlike in an independent measures design

  :) - There is no order effects as the participants will only be in one condition

  :( - Very time consuming to find a large sample and then match every single one with someone else with similar charactersitics
• Outline what method is used to control for individual differences in an independent measures design

  Random allocation can be used where participants are randomly assigned into different groups
• Outline what method is used to combat order effects in a repeated measures design

  Counterbalancing is used whereby the participants are split in half where half A will do condition 1 and then 2 and half B will do condition 2 and then 1.
• Outline the process of random allocation

  It is used to randomly assign participants to different groups to reduce bias and is done by the following order:

  -Give each participant of one gender a number between x-x (number of participants)

  -Put all the same numbers into a hat

  -Take number out one by one without looking

  -Assign first half taken out to condition A and remainder to condition B

  -Repeat process for other gender
• Outline the process of randomisation

  It is used in the procedure of an experiment in order to reduce bias ie. psychologist picking what words to use in their memory test

  -Put each item on separate identical pieces of paper with same size and shape

  -Put in a hat and pick out one by one without looking

  -Repeat for number of items needed
• Outline and evaluate the five different sampling techniques

  Opportunity sampling - being there at that moment in time, for example waiting for people outside a train station on a Monday evening

  :) - Very quick, easy and convenient unlike random which takes a long time

  :( - Can result in a bias sample as not everyone has an equal chance of being selected, only people who are at that place at that time have a change and therefore it is not representative of whole population, making it hard to generalise

  
  

  Random sampling - this is where everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected for example putting names in a hat and picking them out one by one

  :) - It is a very fair method as everyone has an equal chance therefore this reduces the chance of a bias sample

  :( - Very time consuming as getting all the participants permission and then it is not guaranteed that they will want to take part unlike volunteer sampling

  
  

  Volunteer sampling - this is a self selected sample where people choose themselves for example putting an advert up in a newspaper and waiting for replies

  :) - Participants are much more likely to give consent and not drop out as they chose to sign up themselves

  :( - The sample tends to be very bias as only a certain type of person would put themselves forward such as an extrovert

  
  

  Systematic sampling - a more technical approach to sampling where for example every Nth person may be taken

  :) - It is a simple method that allows there to be no researcher bias as they have no influence on who is chosen

  :( - Again it is time consuming getting all the target population

  
  

  Stratified sampling - different subgroups within the target population are identified then people from each subgroup are selected randomly in proportion to the size compared to the whole target population

  :) - Extremely representative as everyone has an equal chance of being selected
• Outline the issues of bias in sampling

  People can refuse to participate - this effects the type of person that you now have in your sample as it will only be a certain type thus lowering the population validity making it hard to generalise

  
  

  Minority subgroups overlooked - Some groups may be missed when choosing a sample this therefore means the results will not accurately represent the whole target population

  
  

  Certain target population targeted more - this can lead to an over representation of a certain group

  
  

  Sample size - if the sample is too small then again it can lead to a lack in population validity
• Outline the five key issues that arise when designing observations

  1) Development of behaviour categories

  2) How to sample the behaviour being studied - three ways of doing this:

  i) Time interval sampling where you observe and record what happens in a fixed time ie. every 10 mins

  ii) Time point sampling where you observe a behaviour that occurs at a series of given times ie. meal times

  iii) Event sampling where you look at the complete event

  
  

  3) Overt/Covert

  4) Participant/Non participant

  5) Equipment

  6) Structured/Unstructured
• Explain validity including the ways to assess/check it and the types of validity

  Validity means whether something is measuring what it is supposed to measure, valid means true and thus a research method is valid if it is measuring what it set out to measure

  
  

  There are two ways to assess the validity of an experiment/research:

  Face validity - this is the simplest technique and is where an independent researcher separate to the experiment looks at the measure being used and assesses whether or not it will actually measure correctly. The researcher will see if there are any extraneous variables that could affect the research and then makes a conclusion

  
  

  Concurrent validity - this is where the research is compared with a similar procedure that has been done in the past where validity has already been established. If the scores correlate as a strong positive then the new test is likely to be valid

  
  

  There are two main branches of validity which are internal and external

  Internal looks at extraneous variables within the study and how easily a cause and effect relationship can be drawn whereas external looks at the extent to which we can generalise the results outside the setting.

  Within external validity there is ecological, population and temporal validity.
• Explain reliability including the ways to assess/check it and how to improve reliability

  Reliability is achieved when the results gained are consistent, reliability just means consistency

  
  

  There are three ways to assess the reliability of an experiment/research:

  Test-Retest method - this is where the same test is given to participants on separate occasions and then compared and if the two sets of scores are consistent it is said to be reliable. Important to keep large time gap between to reduce order effects

  
  

  Inter observer method - used to assess reliability in an observation, the extent to which researchers agree on the behaviours being observed independently. If they have a consistent number of tallies agreed then it is said to be reliable

  
  

  Split half method - this is used to see whether the items in a test/questionnaire are consistent with other items in the test. Items on one test are split into two and then the scores on each half are compared, if a high positive correlation is seen then the test is reliable

  
  

  There are five ways to improve reliability which are:

  1) Use standardised procedures

  2) Written instructions

  3) Pilot studies

  4) Standardised method for collecting data

  5) Training for observers
• State the four ethical issues and how they are dealt with

  Deception - Debrief + Right to withdraw

  Informed consent - Presumptive consent + Informed consent + Parental consent

  
  

  Protection of participants - Right to withdraw + Right to help afterwards including doctors

  
  

  Confidentiality
• Outline the two methods for analysing qualitative data


  Content Analysis - this is where researchers change the qualitative data into quantitative data making it easier to analyse, it is done in the following way:

  1) Capture the qualitative data using a camera/dictaphone then transcribe it

  2) Read through the data and identify a theme and create behaviour categories

  3) Tally up whenever each behaviour category is seen/heard

  4) This data is now quantitative and can be analysed using graphs and charts

  
  

  Pure qualitative analysis - this technique does not convert the data and it presents the findings in a verbal form, it is done in the following way:

  1) The data is collected and transcribed

  2) The data is then read repeatedly to find recurrent themes

  3) This is done over and over until all themes have been identified
• Central tendency includes

  Mean, Median and Mode
• Methods of dispersion includes

  The range which is the largest minus the smallest

  
  

  The standard deviation which represents to what extent the scores are clustered around the mean. If the standard deviation is high then the spread is high and thus has less consistency.
• There are three levels at which data can be measured, outline these

  Nominal Data - this is the most basic level and is where named categories are established and then tallied when an item falls under the category

  
  

  Ordinal Data - this is where data is ranked in order

  
  

  Interval/Ratio Data - the most sophisticated level of data whereby it not only gives the rank of scores in order but also details the precise intervals between scores
• Which chart would be used for each level of data

  Nominal Data - Bar charts as this data is discontinuous

  MODE = best measure of central tendency as gives most common frequency. A measure of dispersion cannot be used.​

  
  

  Ordinal Data - bar chart . ​MEDIAN = best measure of central tendency as gives the middle value in an ordered list. RANGE is the best measure of dispersion.

  
  

  Interval Data - histogram. MEAN = best measure of central tendency for this type of data as it can give an exact average of all scores. SD is the best measure of dispersion.
• define aim

  The purpose of a study
• Define hypothesis

  An educated guess
• Define independent variable

  variable that is manipulated/changed
• Define dependent variable

  The variable that you measure
• define experimental hypothesis


  hypothesis with a testable statement and expected outcome
• Define null hypothesis

  There is no statistically significant difference between groups
• Define directional hypothesis

  a hypothesis that makes a specific prediction about the direction of the relationship between two variables
• Define non-directional hypothesis

  Does not state the direction of the difference or relationship
• define operationalisation

  Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured
• Define lab experiment

  An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV