Cogntive

• Encoding is the process of converting information into a construct that can be stored in the brain's memory.
• Sensory memory:

  • all stimuli from the environment pass into it
  • have five stores for each of our senses
  • e.g visual store (iconic memory) lasts for less than half a second, sound store (echoic memory) lasts for about 2-4 seconds
  • capacity is very high
  • over one hundred million cells in the retina of each eye
  • encoding involves converting information from the environment into a form that can be stored in memory
• Short-term memory:

  • a temporary store - information lasts up to 30 seconds
  • after maintenance rehearsal the material may pass into LTM
  • a limited-capacity store - number 7 plus or minus 2
  • encoding is mainly acoustic
• Long-Term Memory:

  • potentially permanent memory store for information that has been rehearsed for a prolonged time
  • capacity is practically unlimited
  • when forget information in LTM - may still be there but can't access it due to not having the right cues
  • encoding is mainly semantic
• What is remembering?


  Every time we retrieve some information from a memory store, we are remembering. There are two main forms such as recall and recognition.
• Free Recall


  Recall a piece of information when we retrieve it from a memory store without any assistance
• Cued Recall


  Can only recall something if we get assistance from a cue. For example, the starting letter of a word to trigger what the word is.
• Recognition


  Often remember something if we have encountered it before
• Cues are important in remembering because they contribute to superior retrieval. Cues can be meaningful or non meaningful.
• Meaningful Cues


  Learn a cue at the same time as other material. For example about short term memory, the cue contains the letter 'S' which triggers retrieval of short, this then triggers retrieval of other stored knowledge about STM.
• Non-Meaningful Cues


  Cues without meaning can be learned at the same time as you learn about or experience something. For example when studying there may be a thunderstorm, next time there is a thunderstorm you may remember some of the things you studied.
• What is reconstructive memory?


  To store fragments of information. When we recall we reconstruct these fragments into a meaningful whole. The result is that memory is not a totally accurate record of what happened.
• What is a schema?


  A mental structure containing our stored knowledge of an aspect of the world. A schema is based on past personal experiences and on shared cultural experiences. This can affect memory by influencing the way we store and later recall.
• Shortening 


  parts of a memory don't fit schema so they are left out
• Rationalisation


  parts of a memory are recalled but in a distorted way
• Confabulation


  parts of a memory are invented to fill in the gaps, this isn't done deliberately
• What is cognitive priming?


  When you see/hear one stimulus ( the prime) which affects the response to a later stimulus. Happens below level of awareness so do not know response has been influenced. Processing the later stimulus usually happens faster.
• Repetition priming


  when you encounter the prime, you process it more quickly when you see/hear it again later than you otherwise would have done
• Semantic priming


  refers to two stimuli meaning the same or similar thing, you process a stimulus faster because you earlier encountered a prime that was similar in meaning.
• Associative priming


  the prime and later stimulus are associated but not semantically, may usually be paired together in everyday experience.
• What is a memory script?


  Contains our knowledge of how a social situation 'plays out', includes what we expect to happen, how we should behave and what the consequences should be.
• Features of a memory script:

  • they are broken down into scenes ordered by time
  • they concern multiple goals
  • they are dynamic and evolve with experience
  • they are influenced by culture
  • they influence memory
• What is person perception?


  When meeting someone new rather than viewing them as their own individual we quickly categorise them - this is typically done by mentally placing them into groups, often on the basis of looks.
• Making assumptions


  There are gaps in our knowledge about someone new, once we have categorised them we fill in these gaps with information from memory about the category even if the information is wrong.
• Stereotyping and bias


  This knowledge can be wrong because it is partly based on stereotypes, we assume the person in front of us is a representative of a group. Therefore, person perception is not objectively accurate but is affected by our cognitive biases. A danger of this process is that we may later recall information about the person that matches the category we placed them in.
• Effects of a cognitive biases


  Neg effects - they are automatic and affect what we notice, what we remember, how we make decisions and how we interpret other people's behaviour. How we process may become flawed and our ability to make rational choices are undermined.

  Pos effects - simplify how we view the world and allow us to make decisions quickly.
• What are cognitive biases?

  A bias refers to leaning in one direction or prejudging a situation.
• Fundamental attribution error (FAE)

  Attribution - how we try to explain the reasons behind other people's behaviour.

  Fundamental error - most people overemphasise personal characteristics and downplay situations.
• Confirmation bias


  We favour information that confirms beliefs we already hold. We notice confirmatory information quickly and we store and recall it easily. But we ignore, downplay or reject examples that challenge our beliefs.
• Hostile attribution bias (HAB)


  A special form of bias in explaining the reasons for other people's behaviour. Someone with a HAB:

  • wrongly believe somebody else's behaviour is threatening (hostile) when it is actually neutral.
  • believes the other person is being hostile because that is what the other person is like, however ignores the role of the situation.