taboos

• The Protestant Ethic Debate has stimulated much debate in sociology due to Max Weber's bold claim that the development of rational capitalism is rooted partly in religious developments at the time of the Reformation
• Weber does not reject the influence of economic factors on religious ideas but rather emphasizes the mutual adaptation between religious ideas and economic circumstances
• Ascetic Protestantism


  Created an ethos compatible with modern rational capitalism and did not stand in conflict with capitalist business methods and practices
• Capitalist spirit


  Pertains to an attitude or orientation rather than actual behavior, exemplified by the writings of Benjamin Franklin
• Modern entrepreneurs


  • Prioritize profit maximization through rational resource use, viewing wasteful consumption as morally reprehensible
  • The work ethic means that any time not devoted to the end of making money was considered to have been wasted
• The most important force which has impeded the emergence of the capitalist spirit is traditionalism, the tendency to only work for as long as is necessary to earn enough to satisfy customary demands and needs or expectations
• Weber's concept of the spirit of capitalism


  Distinct and arose within the lower industrial middle class, emphasizing virtues and proficiency in one's calling, rooted in religious sources
• The idea of the calling

  Stemming from the Reformation, particularly Calvinism, imparted religious significance to everyday activities, contrasting with Catholicism and Lutheranism
• Calvinist work ethic


  Calvinists believed in proving oneself before God through diligent worldly activity, leading to a rationalization of life conduct and a systematic pursuit of profit, emphasizing abstemiousness and accumulation of capital
• Ascetic Protestantism's ethic


  Contributed to the rise of modern capitalism by promoting capital accumulation through savings, leading to continuous economic growth
• Ascetic Protestantism played a crucial role in the emergence of modern capitalism


  The economic system eventually became self-sustaining, leading to secularization as the religious ethic of ascetic Protestantism promoted worldly activity and wealth expansion
• Calvinistic Protestantism inadvertently contributed to secularization
• Weber's thesis


  The relationship between Protestantism, particularly Calvinistic Protestantism, and the development of rational capitalism, as outlined in his work "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism"
• Critiques of Weber's thesis by Samuelsson and Tawney


  • Overemphasis on Protestantism
  • Lack of Causality
  • Variation and Complexity
  • Neglect of Other Factors
  • Ideal Types and Tautology
• Weber did not offer empirical evidence to establish his claims, but rather made a case for an affinity between ascetic Protestantism and rational capitalism
• Marshall's analysis finds evidence supporting Weber's portrayal of Calvinist pastoral teaching in Scotland and suggests that Scottish capitalists conducted their business in alignment with the spirit of capitalism
• Marshall criticizes Weber's methodology of assuming motives underlying the actions of rational capitalist businessmen without providing direct empirical evidence
• One criticism against Weber's thesis is that it wasn't Protestant doctrines per se but rather the minority position of certain Protestants, notably Calvinists, within their societies that contributed to the rise of rational capitalism
• Luethy's perspective counters the notion that Calvinism alone drove capitalist development, arguing that it was the dissenting nature of Protestantism, especially when it remained a minority faith, that fueled dynamism
• MacKinnon challenges Weber's characterization of Calvinism, suggesting that it did not significantly impact the spirit of capitalism as claimed, and that Calvinist teaching evolved over time, reducing anxiety by emphasizing personal responsibility for salvation
• Lessnoff distinguishes between the work ethic and profit ethic within Calvinism, noting inherent contradictions regarding salvation by faith alone and the pursuit of wealth
• The debate surrounding the impact of Calvinism on capitalism is complex and multifaceted, and scholars continue to examine the nuances of Calvinist doctrines and their practical implications for capitalist development
• Taboo


  A ritual prohibition, originally from the Polynesian word tapu
• Taboos


  • Misfortune may be attributed to supernatural or supramundane causes
  • Represent the survival of primitive superstition (Robertson Smith's view)
  • Embody an element of contagion or pollution
  • Are being created continuously right up to the present, not just primitive survivals (Steiner's view)
  • In traditional societies, violating taboo rules can bring about negative consequences
• Ritual prohibition


  A rule of behavior where breaking them would change a person's social standing in rituals, putting them at risk (Radcliffe-Brown's definition)
• Radcliffe-Brown's functionalist perspective on taboos

  • Taboos help establish important social values and maintain order in society
  • Taboos give social importance to events like childbirth
  • Taboos create anxiety and ensure people are concerned about the event's outcome
• Radcliffe-Brown's functionalist perspective suggests behavior occurs because of the necessary social effects it produces, but this is a flawed assumption
• Freud's perspective on taboo behavior

  Likened to obsessional neurosis, involving actions that seem to have no apparent reason for being prohibited, deriving from an inner compulsion or ambivalence towards the forbidden object
• Steiner points out Freud's characterisation of taboo is incorrect, as the feeling that the taboo must be observed is quite unlike the compulsion of the obsessional neurotic, and the rituals are a matter of custom, not private actions
• Van Gennep's observation on taboos

  • Taboo behavior often features prominently in transition rituals, signaling a belief in the inherent danger of moving from one status or condition to another
  • Taboos act like warning signs, telling us that a life change is happening and it could be a bit dangerous
• Mary Douglas' perspective on taboos

  • Even in modern times, we still have lots of rules or taboos, not just about being clean or safe, but about what we think is really important when we're together as a group
  • Rules and taboos show what our group cares about, even if they seem strange to others
• Gluckman's functionalist interpretation of rituals like the Swazi incwala ceremony


  • Rituals dramatize potential conflicts within society but also serve as mechanisms for resolving those conflicts and reinforcing social cohesion
  • Rituals express conflicting attitudes to alleviate social tensions and foster unity and prosperity
  • Rituals are believed to connect the moral order upheld by society and natural events, addressing underlying structural contradictions
• Gluckman's interpretation of rites of reversal practiced by the Zulu and other societies


  • Rites of reversal allow for the expression of animosities and frustrations within the community in a controlled, ritualized manner
  • Through the expression of tensions and repressed feelings during these rituals, societal unity is renewed
• Norbeck and Abrahams & Bauman challenged Gluckman's claim that these rituals are forms of protest or rebellion, suggesting they may be more about expressing values dominant in one segment of society or dealing with tension and conflict through humor
• Rituals as Symbolic Expression
• Edward Norbeck (1963) criticized Gluckman's claim that these rituals are forms of protest or rebellion


  Stated that it disregarded the frequent indulgence in transvestism by men in such rituals nor the fact that they often involve the expression of animosity towards women
• Abrahams and Bauman (1978) challenged the argument stating that humor is prominent when associated with role reversal


  Analyzed the festivals St Vincent in the Caribbean and the Nova Scotian's La Have Islands and suggested that these displays of rites of reversal are not so much rebellious as they are indicative of values that are dominant in one segment of society and unrelated to the typical home setting
• The two value systems are brought together to illustrate their regular separation yet cohabitation. Despite their fundamental disagreement, contradiction and diversity are significantly more acceptable in communities than functional theory can reveal a crucial harmony
• Rituals involving roles reversal may be quite instrumental and integrated with cosmological systems of thought through which the world is understood and by being understood can be controlled
• Rigby's (1968) shows how rites involving reversal of gender roles among the Gogo people of Tanzania reflect their system of ideas in which social categories are taken as fundamental models for dealing with natural events


  The Gogos believe that by reversing the normal roles of men and women, they can reverse the bad ritual state; this involves the reversal of the flow of time and restoration of previous state of affairs