FINALS

• Crude drugs


  Vegetable and animal drugs that consist of natural substances that have undergone only the processes of collection and drying
• Crude


  Any product that has not been advanced in value or improved in condition by shredding, grinding, chipping, crushing, distilling, evaporation, extracting, artificial mixing with other substances or by any process beyond what is essential to its proper packing and to the prevention of decay or deterioration pending manufacture
• Physical properties - organoleptic evaluation of crude drugs


  • Color
  • Odor
  • Taste
  • Appearance
  • Consistency
  • pH
  • Solubility
• Polar solvents


  • Distilled water
  • Ethanol/Methanol
  • NSS
• Non-polar solvents


  • ChCl3
  • CCl4
  • Ether
• Emulsifying agents


  Agents that convert nonpolar substances into polar substances
• Descriptive terms for solubility

  • Very Soluble
  • Freely Soluble
  • Soluble
  • Sparingly Soluble
  • Slightly Soluble
  • Very Slightly Soluble
  • Practically insoluble or insoluble
• Moisture determination


  Determines the amount of water present in a product because water makes the product prone to contamination
• Ash content determination


  Detection of inorganic elements, "SOIL ANALYSIS"
• Acid-insoluble ash content determination

  Quantitative analyses of crude drugs and the products derived from them to establish purity and determine the amount of the therapeutically active constituents present for the purpose of standardization

  
• Classification of analysis


  • Chemical methods
  • Biological method
• Animals used in testing of drugs

  • Pigeon
  • Rabbit (HPLC)
  • Cat
  • Chicken
  • Sheep blood plasma
  • Male rat
  • Rat, same but either of sex
  • Female rat (20-23 days)
  • Rachitic rat (Spectrophotometer)
• Assay methods for selected drugs

  • Vitamin A - Spectrophotometry
  • Vitamin D - HPLC
  • Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) - HPLC
  • Folic Acid - HPLC
  • Vitamin E - GC
  • Vitamin K (Menadione) - Spectro (635nm)
  • Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) - Fluorometry
  • Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) - Fluorometry
  • Vitamin B12 - Spectro (361 nm)
  • Niacin - Spectro (450nm)
  • Pantothenic Acid - Microbiological - Lactobacillus plantarum
  • Cyanocobalamin - Microbiological - Lactobacillus leichmannii
  • Steroids - Spectro (252nm)
  • Pens/Cephs - HPLC / Hydroxylamine
  • Insulin activity - Rabbit Blood sugar method
• Phytochemicals screening


  • Carbohydrates and related compounds
  • Glycosides
  • Lipids
  • Volatile oils
  • Resin and resin combinations
  • Steroids
  • Alkaloids
  • Peptide hormones
  • Enzymes and other proteins
  • Vitamins
  • Antibiotics
  • Biologics
  • Allergens

  
• Medicinal plants are an effective source of both traditional and modern medicines
• About 80% of the rural population depends on medicinal plants as primary health care (WHO, 2005)
• Richest bio-resources


  • Drugs of traditional systems of medicines
  • Modern medicines
  • Nutraceuticals
  • Food supplements
  • Fold medicines
  • Pharmaceutical intermediates
  • Chemical entities for synthetic drugs
• Phytochemicals


  Natural bioactive compounds found in different parts of plants (fruit, flower, stem, leaf, or root) that provide a definite physiological action on the human body
• Basic parameters influencing the quality of an extract

  • Plant part used as starting material
  • Solvent used for extraction
  • Extraction procedure
• Properties of a good solvent in plant extraction


  • Low toxicity
  • Ease of evaporation at low heat
  • Promotion of rapid physiologic absorption of the extract
  • Preservative action
• Factors affecting the choice of solvent

  • Quantity of phytochemicals to be extracted
  • Rate of extraction
  • Diversity of different inhibitory compounds extracted
  • Ease of subsequent handling of the extracts
  • Toxicity of the solvent in the bioassay process
  • Potential health hazard of the extractants

  
• General techniques of medical plant extraction

  • Plant tissue homogenization
  • Maceration
  • Infusion
  • Digestion
• Effect of extracted plant phytochemicals depends on


  • Nature & origin of the plant material
  • Degree of processing
  • Moisture content
  • Particle size
• Variation in extraction method


  • Length of the extraction period
  • Temperature
  • Solvent used
  • Particle size of plant tissue
  • pH of the solvent
  • Solvent-to-sample ratio

  
• Results revealed that extracts from these plants can be used as good source for drugs
• Further work should be carried out to isolate, purify and characterize the active constituents responsible for the activity of these plants
• Moisture content (water content)


  A test which remove x'ss water in the sample, as excessive moisture (water) promotes bacterial growth which leads to deterioration and spoilage of sample

  
• Six methods of determination of water content


  • Gravimetric
  • Azeotropic: Toluene distillation
  • Titrimetric: Karl Fisher
  • Dew point
  • Electrolytic hygrometric

  
• Azeotropic (Toluene distillation)


  Also known as XYLENE METHOD. Developed by the US Forestry Service as one of the official methods for moisture determination. USP: Azeotropic method while in NF: Toluene distillation

  
• Karl Fischer Titration Method

  A widely used method for the quantitative analysis of water content. Uses coulometric/ volumetric titration to determine trace water amounts in the sample

  
• Karl Fischer Titration: Principle


  Based on the bunsen reaction between iodine and sulfur dioxide (aq. medium). He used alcohol (methanol) as a solvent and a base (pyridine) as buffering agent

  
• Advantages of Karl Fischer Method

  • High accuracy and precision
  • Selectivity for water
  • Small sample quantities required easy sample preparation
  • Short time of analysis nearly unlimited measuring range
  • Suitability for analysis of all forms of samples
  • Independence of presence of other volatiles suitability for automation
  • Advantage of KF method to LOD (loss on drying) method will only detect any volatile substance. The KF method is very specific for water detection

  
• Loss on Drying


  A classic laboratory method of measurement of high level moisture in solid or semisolid materials. A relatively slow method of analysis
• Ash Content Method


  The ash content of a crude drug is generally taken to be the residue after incineration. It usually represents the inorganic salts naturally occurring in the drug and adhering to it, for the purposes of adulteration
• Acid-Insoluble Ash


  The part that is insoluble in dil. HCL. The diluted HCl dissolves the CaCO3, alkali chlorides, etc., leaving an acid-insoluble residue that consists almost entirely of silica derived from soil adhering to the drug
• Temperature Equivalent (If Electric Furnace is used for ignition)
• Example of compounds subjected to heating