Bilinguals

• Bilinguals

  • Few individuals qualify as complete bilinguals
  • More restricted vocabulary in 1, or different abilities in speaking, listening, reading, writing
  • Domain-specific
• Bilingual - Grosjean (1982) definition

  • language use rather than proficiency
  • Bilingual = someone who needs & uses more than 2 languages in everyday life
• Bilingual disadvantages

  • no long-term disadvantages
  • Initial vocabulary acquisition delays in 1 language compared to monolingual
  • Soon compensated, Total bilingual vocabulary exceeds monolingual
  • slight deficit in cognitive & memory processing in 2nd language
  • potential interference effects between languages
• Bilingual advantages

  • better metalinguistic awareness
  • Better verbal fluency - enhanced verbal skills
  • More creative - cognitive flexibility, divergent thinking skills?
• Bilingual advantages - Potentially slow down cognitive aging

  • may delay onset of cognitive decline
  • potentially reduce risk of neurodegenerative diseases
• Bilingual advantages - Better cognitive flexibility 


  • switch between tasks or mental sets
  • adapt to new situations
  • = essential for problem-solving & decision-making
  • Code-switching - ability to seamlessly switch between languages depending on context
• Bilingual Lexicon - How do bilinguals represent multiple languages

  • Separate lexica? - separate-store models, connected at semantic levels
  • shared conceptual representations? common-store models, 1 lexicon for both languages, connected directly
• Development in bilingual interactive activation - Grainger & Dijkstra 1992

  • shift from independent to integrated lexica with increased fluency
  • early fluency = special status of L2 words from excitatory connections to L1
• Development in bilingual interactive activation - Grainger & Dijkstra 1992 - development

  • Links between L1 & L2 - Replacement of excitatory with inhibitory connections
  • Integration into common lexicon
  • Development of language nodes - Knowledge of language of particular word form, Regulators for language activation - Top down control on language
  • Strengthening excitatory connections between L2 & concepts