phonics

• Rhythm


  It involves some noticeable event happening at regular intervals of time
• Main types of rhythm

  • Stress-timed rhythm
  • Syllable-timed rhythm
• Stress-timed rhythm


  In English, stressed syllables will tend to occur at regular intervals of time whether they are separated by unstressed syllables or not
• Syllable-timed rhythm


  In languages like Italian or Spanish, all syllables whether stressed or unstressed tend to occur at regular time intervals and the time between stressed syllables will be shorter or longer in proportion to the number of unstressed syllables
• Stress-Shift


  A change in word stress due to the English tendency towards a regular alternation between strong and weak syllables
• Elision


  In certain contexts, some sounds may disappear or be realized as zero. This is typical of rapid casual speech
• Contexts where elision occurs

  • Loss of weak vowel after /p/ /t/ /k/
  • Loss of weak vowel before syllabic consonants (n – r and l)
  • Avoidance of complex consonant clusters
  • Loss of final /v/ in of and have (weak) before consonants
• Contractions are different cases of elision. They have representation in spelling which means that speakers are aware of the sound elided
• Assimilation


  This process occurs when sounds belonging to one word cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words
• Types of assimilation


  • Regressive
  • Progressive
• Ways a consonant can be assimilated

  • Place of Articulation
  • Manner of Articulation
  • Voicing
• Assimilation: Coalescence


  A very common type of assimilation that involves place and manner of articulation. /t/ + /j/, /d/ + /j/
• Intrusive "r"


  Native speakers sometimes produce /r/ at word boundary between vowels despite "r" not being found in spelling. Usually between vowels
• Syllable structure


  • Onset
  • Nucleus/Peak
  • Coda
  • Consonant Cluster
• Strong or weak syllables


  • Weak syllables tend to be shorter and lower in intensity (loudness)
  • Strong syllables can have any of the vowel phonemes except ə, i, and u
• Possibilities for weak syllables

  • Word final ə, i and u
  • Word final with coda if the vowel is ə
  • Inside words with vowels acting as peaks without codas
  • ɪ can act as peak without coda if the following syllable begins with a consonant
• Vowels - Neutralized Symbols

  Phonemes /iː/ - /ɪ/ and /uː/ - /ʊ/ are neutralised in weak syllables. They change to [i] and [u] respectively
• Contexts where [u] is found in weak syllables


  • Weak forms of you, to, into and do when they are followed by vowel
  • Words who and through in all positions when unstressed
  • Before vowel at morpheme boundary
• Contexts where [i] is found in weak syllables

  • In word final position spelt 'y' or 'ey'
  • In prefixes such as 're-', 'pre-' and 'de-' when a vowel follows
  • In suffixes '-iate' and '-ious' when they have two syllables
  • In the words he, she, we, me , be when unstressed (weak forms) and when a vowel follows
• Syllabic Consonants


  Nasals, laterals and the approximant 'r' can also function as peaks of weak syllables in certain contexts
• Syllabic consonants


  • /l̩/
  • /n̩ /
  • /m̩ /̩
  • /ŋ̩ /̩
  • /r̩ /
• Stress


  In speech some syllables stand out. Speakers use more muscular energy to produce these syllables
• Prominence


  • Loudness
  • Quantity (length)
  • Pitch
  • Quality
• Levels of stress


  • Unstressed
  • Primary stress
  • Secondary stress
• Parameters of stress placement

  • Morphological structure of the word
  • Grammatical category of the word
  • Number of syllables in the word
  • Phonological structure of the syllables in the word
• Stress placement in two-syllable words (verbs)

  • If the second syllable contains a long vowel or a diphthong or ends in more than one consonant, the second syllable takes stress
  • If the final syllable contains a short vowel and one (or no) final consonant, the first syllable takes stress
  • A final syllable is also unstressed if it contains /əʊ/
• Stress placement in two-syllable words (other categories)


  • Adjectives follow the same rule as verbs
  • Exceptions: perfect, honest
  • Nouns: if the second syllable contains a short vowel, the stress will usually come on the first syllable. Otherwise, it will be the second syllable
  • Other two-syllable words such as adverbs and prepositions seem to behave like verbs and adjectives
• Stress placement in three-syllable words (verbs)

  • If the last syllable contains a short vowel and ends with not more than one consonant, stress will be placed on the preceding syllable (penultimate)
  • If the final syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong, or ends with more than one consonant, that final syllable will be stressed
• Stress placement in three-syllable words (nouns)

  • If the final syllable contains a short vowel or /əʊ/, it is unstressed
  • If the syllable preceding this final syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong, or if it ends with more than one consonant, that middle syllable will be stressed
• Stress placement in three-syllable words (other)

  • If the final syllable contains a short vowel and the middle syllable contains a short vowel and ends with no more than one consonant, both final and middle syllables are unstressed and the first one takes the stress
  • Stress tends to be placed on syllables containing long vowels or diphthongs and/or ending with more than one consonant. However, three-syllable simple nouns are different. If the final syllable is of this type, the stress will usually be placed in the first syllable
• Types of Complex Words

  • Stem + affix
  • Compound Words
• Possible effects of affixes on word stress


  • The affix itself receives primary stress
  • The word is stressed as if the affix was not there
  • The stress remains on the stem but shifts to a different syllable
• Suffixes carrying primary stress themselves

  • -ain
  • -ee
  • -eer
  • -ese
  • -ette
  • -esque
  • -ique
• Suffixes that do not affect stress placement

  • -like
  • -less
  • -ly
  • -ment
  • -ness
  • -ous
  • -fy
  • -wise
  • -y
• Suffixes that modify the stress in the stem

  • -eous
  • -graphy
  • -ial
  • -ic
  • -ion
  • -ious
  • -ty
• Suffixes


  Productive affixes that modify the meaning of a word
• Suffixes carrying primary stress themselves

  • -ain as in entertain
  • -ee as in refugee
  • -eer as in volunteer
  • -ese as in Chinese
  • -ette as in kitchenette
  • -esque as in picturesque
  • -ique as in unique
• Suffixes that do not affect stress placement

  • -like as in birdlike
  • -less as in powerless
  • -ly as in terribly
  • -ment as in punishment
  • -ness as in yellowness
  • -ous as in famous
  • -fy as in glorify
  • -wise as in moneywise
  • -y as in funny
• Suffixes that modify the stress in the stem


  • -eous as in advantageous
  • -graphy as in photography
  • -ial as in proverbial
  • -ic as in climatic
  • -ion as in perfection
  • -ious as in injurious
  • -ty as in tranquillity
  • -ive as in reflexive
• Suffixes -ance, -ant and -ary


  Stress is almost always placed on the stem. When the stem has two syllables, the stress may be either on the first or the second syllable but there is a rule: if the final syllable of the stem contains a long vowel or diphthong, or if it ends with more than one consonant, that syllable receives the stress (e.g. importance). Otherwise, the syllable before the last one receives the stress (e.g. military).