How do people learn and remember?

• Learning

  Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, or behaviours through experience.
• Classical Conditioning

  Demonstrates that learning can occur involuntarily as a result of the pairing of different stimuli. The learner is passive in the conditioning (involuntary).

  
  

  It's a process of learning involuntary association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditional stimulus that results in a conditioned response.
• Classical Conditioning- Before Conditioning

  The NS exists which produces no significant response, as well as an UCS that automatically produces an UCR.
• Classical Conditioning- During Conditioning

  The NS is repoeadtly paired with the UCS, which in turn produces the UCR.
• Classical Conditioning- After Conditioning

  The NS becomes the CS, producing a CR. The CR has been learnt.
• Neutral Stimulus (NS)

  The stimuli that produces no significant response prior to conditioning
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

  The stimulus that produces an unconscious response
• Unconditioned Response (UCR)

  A naturally occurring behaviour in response to a stimulus
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

  (Originally the NS) that produces a conditioned response after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
• Conditioned Response (CR)

  The response that occurs involuntarily after the conditioned stimulus is presented.
• Operant Conditioning

  Operant conditioning is a three-phase learning process that involves an antecedent, behaviour and consequence, whereby the consequence of a behaviour determines that likelihood that it will reoccur. The learner is active in this conditioning.
• Operant Conditioning- Antecedent

  The stimuli or event that proceeds and often elicits a particular behaviour.

  
  

  E.G. the owner says the word 'sit' to their dog.
• Operant Conditioning- Behaviour

  The voluntary actions that occur in the presence of the antecedent.

  
  

  E.G. the dog sits in response to the command word 'sit'.
• Operant Conditioning- Consequence

  The outcome of the behaviour, which determines the likelihood that it will occur again. Involves positive/negative reinforcement/punishment.

  
  

  E.G. The owner gives the dog a treat after they sit upon command. This increases the likelihood that the dog will sit on command again in the future.
• Positive Reinforcement

  The addition of a desirable stimulus, which in turn increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

  
  

  +Desirable (add)
• Negative Reinforcement

  The removal of an undesirable stimulus, which in turn increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

  
  

  -Undesirable (remove)
• Positive Punishment

  The addition of an undesirable stimulus, which in turn decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

  
  

  +Undesirable (add)
• Negative Punishment

  The removal of a desirable stimulus, which in turn decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

  
  

  -Desirable (remove)
• Observational Learning

  Is a process of learning that involves watching the behaviour of a model and the associated consequence of that behaviour.
• Observational Learning- Stage 1: Attention

  Actively focusing on the models behaviour. Attention may be influenced by: motivation, situation and characteristics.

  
  

  We are more likely to imitate models who have high status, similarities, those who are familiar and that their behaviour is visible and easy to imitate.
• Observational Learning- Stage 2: Retention

  The learnt behaviour must be stored in memory as a mental representation so that the observed learning can be utilised at a later date.
• Observational Learning- Stage 3: Reproduction

  The learner must have the physical and mental ability to convert these mental representations and actions.
• Observational Learning- Stage 4: Motivation

  The learner must want to imitate the learnt behaviour. This will depend on whether the learner believes that there will be a desirable consequence (reinforcement) for reproducing the learnt behaviour.
• Observational Learning- Stage 5: Reinforcement

  Receiving reinforcement will increase the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated again in the future.
• Observational Learning- External Reinforcement

  When you get praise or rewards for your behaviour.
• Observational Learning- Vicarious Reinforcement

  Is observing the modelled behaviour being reinforced for other people.
• Observational Learning- Self-Reinforcement

  Meeting certain standards of performance we set for ourselves, can be both negative or positive.
• Encoding

  The process that converts information into a useable form (code) that can be stored and represented in the memory system. Converting information into a neural pathway.
• Storage

  Information is retained in memory overtime
• Retrieval

  Information is recovered from memory when needed, bringing it into consciousness.
• Sensory Memory

  Receives and stores an unlimited amount of sensory information up to a few seconds.

  
  

  0.2-4 seconds sees up to 10 seconds, unlimited capacity.
• Iconic Memory

  The sensory Register for visual information which it sores in the form of an icon. 0.2 to 0.4 seconds, unlimited capacity.

  
  

  Subdivision of Sensory Memory
• Echoic Memory

  The sensory register for auditory information which it stores in the form of an echo. 3 to 4 seconds, unlimited capacity.

  
  

  Subdivision of Sensory Memory
• Short Term Memory (STM)

  Stores a limited amount of information entering from the sensory memory or retrieved from LTM for a short period of time unless information is rehearsed.

  
  

  12-20 seconds sees up to 30 seconds, limited to capacity, 7+-2 pieces of info.
• Chunking

  Grouping seperate items of information from a large single information unit (chunk) to increase STM capacity at any given moment.
• Long Term Memory (LTM)

  Used for relatively permanent storage of an unlimited amount of information.

  
  

  Potentially permanent, unlimited capacity.
• Explicit Memory

  Are memories which are consciously retrieved.
• Semantic Memory

  Impersonal factual knowledge about the world e.g. days of the week.
• Episodic Memory

  Personally significant events or episodes that are related to a specific time or place e.g. birthday celebration.
• Implicit Memory

  Are memories that don't require conscious or intentional retrieval.