Stress

• Stress


  Internal and external stressors causing psychological and physiological stress responses, including the flight-or-fight-or-freeze response in acute stress and the role of cortisol in chronic stress
• Gut-brain axis (GBA)


  An area of emerging research, with reference to the interaction of gut microbiota with stress and the nervous system in the control of psychological processes and behaviour
• Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome


  A biological model of stress, including alarm reaction (shock/counter shock), resistance and exhaustion
• Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman's Transactional Model of Stress and Coping


  Explains stress as a psychological process (primary and secondary appraisal only)
• Stressors


  Stimuli that cause or produce stress and challenge our ability to cope
• Internal Stressors


  • Doubt
  • Pain
  • Fear
• External Stressors


  • Overcrowding
  • Nagging Parents
  • Physical threat
• Fight-or-flight-or-freeze response


  An involuntary response to a threatening, fearful or otherwise stressful situation, involving physiological changes produced by the sympathetic nervous system in readiness for fighting, fleeing or freezing
• Cortisol


  A steroid hormone that is released in times of stress to aid the body in initiating and maintaining heightened arousal. It is released by the adrenal glands and is involved in short-term and long-term stress responses.
• During fight-flight response


  Cortisol energises the body
• Unlike adrenaline & noradrenaline

  Cortisol also helps to remain at above-average levels of arousal even after the initial response is over
• Long-term effects of cortisol

  • Can suppress our immune system
  • Higher risk of developing colds, hypertension, blood sugar imbalance, diabetes, mental health problems
• Gut-Brain Axis (GBA)


  A bidirectional, multi-faceted communication link between the central and enteric nervous systems, involving direct and indirect pathways between cognitive and emotional areas in our brain with the gastrointestinal tract
• When we feel stressed or anxious

  We may end up with an upset stomach due to signals our brain has sent to our gut
• Disruption in our gut or its activities

  May affect our mood, emotional arousal, motivation, behaviour and even higher-order cognitive functions
• Disruptions to the gut-brain axis or an imbalance in gut bacteria


  Can affect endocrine and immune system functioning as well as our physiological responses to stress
• Human microbiome


  The collective genomes of the microorganisms (composed primarily of bacteria) that live inside and on the human body
• Most of the research on the gut-brain axis and stress has been with animals and there is a relative lack of research evidence with both healthy and unhealthy people, especially experimental research and long-term studies
• Despite the accumulating evidence, caution is needed in overinterpreting or over-stating the research evidence as there is still much to learn
• Nervous stomach


  Abdominal discomfort or pain people may experience when anxious and stressed
• Experiments conducted by doctors to find that emotions can impair digestion are not true experiments
• Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

  A three-stage process the body goes through when exposed to stress: alarm reaction, resistance, exhaustion
• Alarm Reaction stage


  1. Shock (temporary state of shock, ability to deal with stressor falls below normal level)

  2. Counter Shock (sympathetic nervous system activated, fight–flight-freeze response, adrenaline released)
• Resistance stage


  Intense arousal of alarm reaction stage reduces but remains high, unnecessary physiological processes are shut down, cortisol released to energise body and help repair damage
• Exhaustion stage


  Resources depleted, resistance to disease very weak, more vulnerable to physical and mental disorders, extreme fatigue, high levels of anxiety, depression, nightmares and impaired sexual performance, hypertension, gastrointestinal problems and heart disease may occur
• Strengths of Selye's GAS

  • Details physiological processes involved in stress
  • Established strong connection between extreme prolonged/chronic stress and some diseases
  • Showed prolonged stress could lead to death in lab rats
• Limitations of Selye's GAS

  • Overemphasis on biological processes
  • Predominantly based on research with lab rats - a limited model of the human stress response
  • No consideration of psychological and environmental factors, no recognition of the role of emotions and cognitions in the stress response
• Lazarus and Folkman's Transactional Model of Stress and Coping

  Explains stress as a psychological process, with primary appraisal (what does this mean for me?) and secondary appraisal (can I cope?)
• Primary Appraisal


  Evaluating whether a situation is irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful (threat, challenge, harm-loss)
• Coping strategy


  A specific method, behavioural or psychological, used to manage or reduce stress
• Secondary Appraisal


  Evaluating one's ability to cope - resources and options
• Effectiveness of the strategy

  • There are many different types of coping strategies but there is not a single 'right' way to cope
  • There aren't any particular strategies that suit everyone
  • Effectiveness of the strategy used is influenced by factors such as the demands of the situation
  • Ability to adapt and modify the strategy accordingly
• Strengths of Lazarus and Folkman's model


  • Used human subjects, cognitive approach focusing on how people cope, took mental processes and emotions into account
• Context-Specific Effectiveness


  • Whether there is a match or 'good fit' between the coping strategy and the stressful situation
  • For a strategy to be effective, it must take account of all the characteristics of the stressful situation
  • These may relate to the physical environment, the stressor and the individual involved
• Limitations of Lazarus and Folkman's model


  • Greater focus on psychological factors meant less emphasis on physiological elements, did not include cultural/social/environmental factors, difficult to test experimentally
• Coping Flexibility


  Ability to effectively modify or adjust coping strategies according to demands of different stressful situations
• Stress doesn't always involve cognitive appraisal, e.g. in sudden disasters where there is no time to think
• Flexibility Includes


  • Selecting a coping strategy that suits the situation
  • Recognising when the coping strategy being used is ineffective
  • Discontinuing an ineffective coping strategy
  • Implementing an alternative coping strategy when required
• Individuals with high coping flexibility


  • Readily adjust ineffective coping strategies
  • Use a variety of coping strategies across situations
  • Have a good fit between the strategies deployed and demands of the situation
• Individuals with low coping flexibility


  • Rely on the same coping strategies across different situations
  • Persist with them, even in the face of ineffectiveness
  • Are not very adaptable