Education

• Durkheim


  Social solidarity - Individual's members must feel part of a single body/community.

  
  

  Social life and cooperation would be impossible without it.

  It helps transfer and transmit society's cultures.

  
  

  Acts as a 'society in miniature' preparing children for wider society later in life.

  
  

  Specialist skills - noticed that an advanced economy needs a complex division of labour promoting social solidarity.

  
  

  Education teaches children skills and knowledge to play part in the economy.
• Evaluation of Durkheim


  Does not teach specialist skills adequately and vocational education are rare (1/3 of them are not in higher education).

  
  

  Ample evidence that equal opportunity doesn't exist.

  
  

  Greatly influenced on the class backgrounds.

  
  

  Marxists sees it as a capitalist society.

  
  

  Wrong (1961) argue that they have over-socialised view and wrongly imply pupils accept their taught values.

  
  

  New Right argue that the state education fail to prepare children for wider society.
• Parsons


  Sees it as a focal socialising agency where the child is judged by particularistic/universalistic/impersonal standards

  
  

  Given equality of opportunity and are rewarded via efforts and ability.
• Davis and Moore


  Sees it as device of selection and role allocation.

  
  

  Argue that inequality is NECESSARY to ensure the roles and encourages competition.

  
  

  It plays key role proving ground of ability.

  
  

  Must learn to co-operate those who are not friends or family and so the school provides context for those to develop these skills and learn to interact with other people.

  
  

  Argues that the schools serves a function which is not provided by the family and so is serving as a secondary socialising agent.

  
  

  Believes that schools should be strictly enforced and so punishment is given for bad behaviour.

  
  

  This is to ensure that they learns the skills, norms and values to fit into society.

  
  

  They learn that it is wrong to act against interest of social group
• Chubb and Moe


  Its failure as it has not created equal opportunity.

  
  

  Based on argument on comparison of achievement from low-income families to private sector.

  
  

  This calls for the introduction of the market system and argue this allows them to shape schools.

  
  

  Proposes the systems where each family are given vouchers to spend on education.

  
  

  This forced schools to be more responsive.

  
  

  They argue that the educational standards would be improved introduced to the state sector.

  
  

  Sees the 2 roles for the state: imposing framework and transmitting shared culture.

  
  

  Believes they should affirm national identity and aims to integrate pupils to traditions, cultures and values

  
  

  Opposes multicultural education which reflects the minority groups.
• Evaluation of Chubb and Moe


  Gewirtz (1995) and Ball (1994) argue that competition benefits the middle-class.

  
  

  Critics argue that the real cause is social inequality and inadequate funding.

  
  

  Contradictions on paternal choice support and is imposing the national curriculum.

  
  

  Marxists - does not impose the shared national culture but of minority class groups.

  
  

  Devalues the culture of the working class and ethnic minorities
• Althusser


  Argues that there are two types of state apparatuses:

  
  

  Repressive state apparatuses - they maintain rules by force which includes the police, courts and the army represses the working class.

  
  

  Ideological state apparatuses - maintains rules by people's idea, values and belief which includes religion, mass media and the education system.

  
  

  Argues that the education system performs two functions - to reproduce and legitimate class inequality.
• Evaluation of Althusser


  Serves the interest of capitalism.

  
  

  They take a deterministic view assuming that pupils have no free will.

  
  

  Morrow and Torres (1998) criticises for taking a class first approach.

  
  

  Sees that society is diverse and argue that they must explain reproducing and legitimating class inequality.

  
  

  McRobbie (1978) sees the absence of female in his research.

  
  

  However, it has stimulated a great deal of research for example,

  Connolly (1998) explores ethnic and gender inequalities.

  
  

  Sewell, Evans and Mac an Ghaill conducted research on inter-relationships
• Bowles and Gintis


  Argues that the capitalism requires the workforce to suit for the role.

  
  

  The role of the education system is to reproduce an obedient workforce accepting inequality.

  
  

  Concludes that schools rewards the kind of personality traits makes a submissive worker.

  
  

  Argue that there are close parallel between schooling and work in the capitalist society.

  
  

  Refers to them as examples of correspondence principles operating via hidden curriculum.

  
  

  They prepare the working class to reproduce the workforce which capitalism needs.

  
  

  Cohen (1984) argue that the youth training scheme serves capitalism lowering their aspirations for low-paid work.

  
  

  There is always a danger that the working-class will feel inequality is undeserved and unfair.

  
  

  Helps prevent this by legitimating class inequality producing ideologies

  
  

  Describes the education system as the myth of meritocracy who does not exist.

  
  

  Contrasts with the functionalist

  
  

  Evidence shows the main factors is family and class background.

  
  

  Serves to justify privileges of the middle-class opening them into an open and fair competition

  
  

  Persuades the working-class to accept inequality and are less likely to overthrow capitalism.

  
  

  Also justifies poverty via the poor are dumb theory making them less likely to rebel against capitalism.
• Evaluation of Bowles and Gintis


  It is useful in exposing the myth of meritocracy showing the role in education.

  
  

  Serves the interest of capitalism.

  
  

  Postmodernists criticises B + G requiring schools to produce a labour force.

  
  

  They take a deterministic view assuming that pupils have no free will.

  
  

  Morrow and Torres (1998) criticises for taking a class first approach.

  
  

  Sees that society is diverse and argue that they must explain reproducing and legitimating class inequality.

  
  

  MacDonald (1980) argue that B + G ignores the reproduction of patriarchy

  
  

  McRobbie (1978) sees the absence of female in his research.

  
  

  However, it has stimulated a great deal of research for example,

  
  

  Connolly (1998) explores ethnic and gender inequalities.

  
  

  Sewell, Evans and Mac an Ghaill conducted research on inter-relationships.
• Willis


  Found the working class can resist these attempts to instruct them by combining this with the interactionist approach enabling the restriction of indoctrination.

  
  

  Studied the counter school culture found they opposes schools.

  
  

  They found that they found school boring and meaningless and had own brand by intimidatory humour.

  
  

  Noticed similarity between anti-school counterculture and male manual workers.

  
  

  Explains why they are resistant to schools.
• Evaluation of Willis


  Serves the interest of capitalism.

  
  

  They take a deterministic view assuming that pupils have no free will.

  
  

  Willis rejects the view school brainwashes pupils to accepts inequality and fate.

  
  

  Morrow and Torres (1998) criticises for taking a class first approach.

  
  

  Sees that society is diverse and argue that they must explain reproducing and legitimating class inequality.

  
  

  McRobbie (1978) sees the absence of female in his research.

  
  

  However, it has stimulated a great deal of research for example,

  Connolly (1998) explores ethnic and gender inequalities.

  
  

  Sewell, Evans and Mac an Ghaill conducted research on inter-relationships.
• Rikowski


  The higher the development of capitalism, more institution of social reproduction are capitalised.

  
  

  Education becomes commodity and is a product to be bought and sold on market and the driving force behind education institution is generation of profits.

  
  

  Claims that beginning of business takeover.

  
  

  Global spending on education means that it is profitable and is welcome by many government.
• Evaluation of Rikowski


  Given a new lease to Marxism

  
  

  Accepts that schools run like business and is exposed to market forces.

  
  

  However, it is a long way from saying education is a global commodity by global capitalism to make profit

  
  

  Government controls education so schools for profit are unlikely and appear.
• Becker


  Uncovers the meaning which teaches classify as an ideal pupil which is a benchmark to judge pupils

  
  

  Ideal pupil - highly motivated, intelligent and well-behaved which is mostly middle-class pupils

  
  

  As a result, working-class pupils may be regarded or labelled as having discipline problems and this can have an effect on their education career.

  
  

  He also found that teacher judges them to fit into the image of the ideal pupil which is normally the m/c.

  
  

  They found inconsistencies of how they assess suitability based on class/race.

  
  

  Cicourel and Kitsuse (1963) shows how labelling disadvantages the w/c because teachers will label them negatively which affects their educational achievement.
• Evaluation of Becker


  Provides valuable insight from the one-to-one interactions

  
  

  Seen as too narrow and restricted and ignores whole of society
• Beynon


  Argue that social identities are constructed rapidly on the basis of little evidence

  
  

  Examined how boys were classified and evaluated which included good kids, teachers' pet, bullies, dippoes, weirds, snobs or toffees
• Evaluation of Beynon


  His study was very descriptive and does not exercise explanatory power
• Hargreaves


  Argues that meanings and roles are not fixed and given and he sees how teachers and pupils negotiate working consensus

  
  

  Saw that teachers offers rewards or punishment as well as telling cautionary tales about ex-students

  
  

  They are in a powerful position because they are formal authority and so orders are negotiated based on consensus which links to the workplace.

  
  

  He also argues about the three types of subcultures that are formed:

  
  

  Speculation - Teachers makes a guess on how the pupil is based on their appearance

  
  

  Elaboration - The teacher then tests their hypothesis of how the pupil is.

  
  

  Stablisation - The hypothesis is solidified which creates teaching labelling, self-fulfilling prophecy and eventually then joins an anti-school subculture.
• Evaluation of Hargreaves


  Argue that good Sociology should link interaction and wider society and argues that it is possible to do so

  
  

  Woods (1983) argue that providing information can lead to better teaching and reduction in conflict and deviance

  
  

  Difficult to support idea that meanings and definition are simply constructed
• Dewey


  Argues that it is the job of the education system to help individuals develop their full potential and so stresses the importance of intellectual potential.

  
  

  He is critical of rote learning where he argues for progressive teaching methods and reduces inequality
• Evaluation of Dewey


  He has emphasized so much the necessary cultural, historical, and social contexts of education
• Illich


  He wants to get rid of the education system as he believes that the current education system is the root of all problems

  
  

  Should be the learning of skills and should be a liberating experience.

  
  

  Believes that 'skills exchanger'/teachers should be experienced people in that sector

  
  

  Regards schools as a repressive institution where it brainwashes pupil from creativity which is exercised via hidden curriculum

  
  

  Deschooling lies at the root of the movement towards human liberation
• Evaluation of Illich


  Cannot please all needs for individuals

  
  

  There are certain courses or subjects who needs academia in it such as science and psychology

  
  

  The individual are restricted and limited to only one skill
• Halsey et al


  The education system fails to offer opportunities to lower social classes and indicates that working-class children tends to be failures.

  
  

  They are critical of the tripartite system where it fails to develop human potential

  
  

  Depends on class background on social mobility where education creates equality

  
  

  Argue that a meritocratic society makes individuals reach their maximum potential contribution which encourages economic growth
• Evaluation of Halsey et al


  In 1974 he provoked widespread ridicule when he appealed to parents to remove their children from public schools on the ground that they were contributing to the deprivation of disadvantaged children.
• Usher et al


  He argues that individuals have multiple sense of identity where education has become more playful and leisure and where there will be increased chances of adult education

  
  

  Opposed to the belief that there is a firm foundation and is skeptical

  
  

  Argues that the future of education are: keep the modern system, reshape for traditional values or reshape it to reflect capitalism.
• Evaluation of Usher et al


  This approach is based on criticising other approaches

  
  

  However, there is little empirical evidence to support their claim

  
  

  Ignores economic/political forces

  
  

  It is also unlikely to be influenced by oppressed groups
• Lacey


  Conducted a study of male working-class pupils and concluded there were two concepts which shows a difference in behaviour:

  
  

  Differentiation - Where teachers judges pupil based on the ability from the evidence and stream them.

  
  

  Polarisation - A gap between the streams and so it says that the top stream will succeed and the bottom stream will fail.

  
  

  This shows that the working-class are being labelled and they shows that they are more likely to underachieve and join an anti-school subculture
• Evaluation of Lacey


  Hargreaves (1967, 1976), Ball (1981) and Abraham (1989) = found that teachers' perception of students' academic ability and the process of differentiation and polarization influenced how students behaved, and led to the formation of pro- and anti-school subcultures.
• Mac an Ghaill


  Found the type of curriculum and the teacher-pupil relationships:

  
  

  Macho lads - They were in bottom band and so this results in ACADEMIC FAILURES.

  
  

  Academic achievers - They saw hard work as success and they were in top band.

  
  

  New enterprisers - They saw vocational education as a route to success.

  
  

  Also argue that visual aspects of pupils controlling their identities is called the male gaze

  
  

  He sees it as a form of surveillance from the dominant heterosexual masculinity being reinforced in the subcultures within the education system

  
  

  One way is to prove is to tell or retell a story and those who does not are labelled as gay

  
  

  The middle-class have projected the image of effortless achievement.

  
  

  Found that how peer groups reproduce different class masculine identities so working-class macho lads were dismissive

  
  

  Students who believed that teacher had labelled them negatively does not accept this
• Evaluation of Mac an Ghaill


  Redman = found that masculine identity changes and so this has represented the shift from the working-class definition

  
  

  Haywood = found that male teachers have told boys not to act like girls and so are teased

  Tended to ignore verbal abuse and so they have blamed girls
• Davies


  Conducted study on Canadian girls and concluded that their resistance is less exaggerated and adopts an exaggerated femininity.

  
  

  Abraham (1995) argue that girls pushed rules to the limit and so responds to discipline.

  Sewell (1997) argue there are 4 types: conformists, innovators, retreatists and the rebel.
• Rosenthal and Jacobson


  Told a school that they were providing a new test but in reality, it was a standard IQ test (this is an immoral act which breaks the BSA guideline - Methods in Context)

  
  

  They picked 20% of random students and told the teachers that those 20% of students are 'sprouters'.

  
  

  They came a year later and took another IQ test and found that 47% of the 20% of students made significant progress.

  
  

  This demonstrates the self-fulfilling prophecy illustrating the interactionist view on education.
• Evaluation of Rosenthal and Jacobson

  Sociologists rarely use experiments as a research method, this therefore is a valuable source of information.
• Rist


  They studied a child-centred primary school.

  
  

  They found that there are three group of pupils: the fast learners, cardinals and the clowns. The fast learners were usually the middle-class while the cardinals and the clowns were the w/c.

  
  

  They were allowed to choose their own activities.
• Evaluation of Rist


  Has been accused of determinism by assuming that they have no choice to fulfil the prophecy.

  
  

  Fuller (1984) shows that this is NOT TRUE.

  
  

  Shows that underachievement is the result of the self-fulfilling prophecy and anti-school subculture.

  
  

  Marxists argues that they ignore the wide struggles of power and it is not the result to prejudice but it is to reproduce CLASS DIVISION.
• Archer et al


  He argues that middle-class habitus stigmatises w/c pupil identities and the struggle for recognition.

  
  

  Also argues investment is not the only cause of education marginalisation but it expresses positive preferences.

  
  

  Found that working-class needs to change themselves to be educationally successful and so they felt unable to be posh or professional.

  
  

  Also argues that symbolic capital was one reason for the differences in working-class identity and school's value

  
  

  Focused that performing working-class identity, it has gained symbolic capital and adopted a hyper-heterosexual feminine identity

  
  

  This can lead to symbolic violence and so it has seen from school's view on their ideal female identity.
• Ingram


  Having working-class identity was inseparable from working-class loyalty

  
  

  Its dense network were part of habitus and gave intense sense of belonging.

  
  

  Notes that working-class community places great emphasis on conformity and experienced great pressure
• Evaluation of Ingram


  Maguine = wrote own experience saying that cultural capital is nothing in their setting.