Political Ideologies: Liberalism

• Individualism

  Individualism places value on the rights of the individual over the rights of the group within society. Liberals believe that individuals are rational beings and responsible for their own actions, so an individual’s right to choose their own actions should be protected. 
• Egoistical Individualism

  Egoistical individualism is the belief that individual freedom includes satisfying personal desires. This view of liberalism supports a state that is as small as possible. This is known as atomism and is a view held by classical liberals.
• Developmental Individualism

  Developmental individualism is the belief that individuals within a society would wish to live alongside each other. This view is more supportive of an enabling state than a limited one; the state should provide welfare and support to make individuals more free to pursue their own goals.
• Freedom

  Freedom is the ability and right to make choices for oneself without restriction, coercion or external intervention, and it is the most important liberal value. Individual freedom does not include unrestricted freedom, because this may harm, and infringe upon the freedom of others. Individuals have a right to freedom, but have a responsibility to not abuse others. Mill’s ‘harm principle’ explains how to deal with when to restrict individual liberty, and ensures freedom of the community.
• Freedom + The State

  The state should not extend beyond a necessary role in order to allow maximum individual freedom. The state should also guarantee freedom under the law, by protecting individual rights, like right to property.
• Freedom + The Economy

  Liberals believe that capitalism is the best system to ensure individual freedom in society and the economy. It is based around the idea of free markets, without large amounts of state intervention.
• Positive Freedom

  Positive liberty is when an individual is given freedom to do as they wish by an authority. This idea supports a larger role for the state in society and the economy: the state may provide social welfare to give them better income to carry out their individual goals.
• Negative Freedom

  Negative liberty is when an individual is free from external constraints and interference to do as they wish. This idea supports a smaller role for the state in society and the economy. For example, freedom from a tyrannical government ensures freedom of speech and association without fear of harm from the state.
• Rationalism

  Rationalism is the belief that human beings are rational, reasonable and logical. It means that individuals are capable of forming decisions based on logic and reason, rather than on emotions. Rationalism supports individual freedom and self-determination because we can assume people will make appropriate choices without guidance from external authorities.

  Liberals disagree with paternalism, the one-nation conservative belief that individuals are flawed and need help to make rational decisions.
• Progressive Society + Tolerance

  Liberalism promotes a progressive society because it is reinforced by the idea that humans are all rational, and therefore all deserve equal rights and freedoms, regardless of external factors beyond their control. These progressive societies promote tolerance, the willingness to respect the opinions, values and cultures of those you disagree with.
• Formal Equality

  Formal equality is the idea that all individuals have the same legal and political rights in society. It means that the state has to provide rights by law to ensure this type of equality. Mill criticised formal equality because it does not account for weighted voting: male land-owners had more say in elections.
• Foundational Equality

  Foundational equality means that all humans have equal rights simply by existing, and these rights cannot be taken away. The phrase ‘inalienable rights’ appears in the US constitution, and the HRA is another form of foundational equality in practice. 
• Equality of Opportunity

  Equality of opportunity is the idea that all individuals should have equal chances in life to succeed or fail. Green explains that it is aimed at addressing inequalities caused by the ‘cycle of deprivation’ which creates barriers that prevents people progressing in life. This is the better option to equality of outcome, because liberals would argue that it leads to an unacceptable level of state intervention.
• Liberal Democracy

  Liberal democracy respects the will of the people and has regular free and fair elections, and the government is held accountable. Mill argues that democracy helps an individual to develop, and that by participating in democracy and individual can learn and develop, and thereby become more rational and fulfilled. A democracy should have a constitution to ensure the government is checked, and a separation of powers which serve to keep each other in check would ensure there is not too much concentrated power.
• Meritocracy

  Meritocracy is the idea that individuals should be able to succeed in society on the basis of their own abilities rather than any other factor. Individuals would succeed based on their merit, rather than any circumstances of their birth. Individuals should have equal opportunities to succeed.
• Mechanistic Theory

  Mechanistic theory is the idea that the state is a man-made creation that  individuals create to serve their interests. Liberals believe that the state is there to protect individual freedom. As a result, interactions between individuals can help determine how the state functions.
• Social Contract Theory

  Social contact theory is the idea that the state or society is set up with agreement from the people to respect its laws, which serve to protect them. The idea referees, therefore, to a contract between the people and the government based on the people’s consent to be ruled. Locke is the key thinker to consider when discussing the social contract. Any election where people vote for authorities strengthens the idea of the social contract, as it is the people giving consent to be ruled by that authority.
• Classical Liberals + Human Nature

  Early classical liberals view human nature as being fixed, and that all humans were innately rational and capable of rational decision making. Individuals were egoistic, and driven by their own self-interest: Bentham argues that all humans are driven by seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. But later classical liberals, like Mill, argued that human nature was developing and education would help people to realise their full potential.
• Classical Liberals + Society

  Liberals viewed society as atomistic: society is no more than a collective of self-interested individual people, and argued that society should leave individuals to be free to choose their own lifestyle and decide how best to use their talents. They believed that all people were born equal and should have equal rights under the law: Wollstonecraft applies this also to women, and James Mill even argued for the decriminalisation of homosexuality.
• Classical Liberals + Private Property

  Classical liberals, most famously Locke, argue in favour of the right to own private property, and societal inequality. Locke argues that everyone owns their own person, and their labour is their property. Anything you earn is yours, but this extends to employers hiring others to do labour for them. If someone owns more property and then sold or traded it away, he benefits society as a whole.
• Classical Liberals + Equality

  Classical liberals believe in equality of opportunity over equality of outcome. They view equality of outcome as undesirable as people have different talents and work ethics. Instead, they promote the idea that everyone should have a fair chance at success regardless of the circumstances of their birth. Also, they believe that everyone is born equal under the eyes of the law, and should have equal legal and political rights.
• Classical Liberals + The State

  The classical liberal focus on negative freedom means that they favour a minimal state, largely consisting of a military for common defence, and a police force and judicial system to enforce negative rights. This is also referred to as a night-watchman state, as it is standing watch like a guard to enforce property rights, rather than providing welfare. 

  Classical liberals argue for limited state intervention in the economy and free market to maximise individual freedoms. Smith refers to the ‘invisible hand’ to explain how market forces can guide themselves.
• Classical Liberals + The Economy

  Classical liberals support laissez-faire economics, which means to let people do as they choose, and they support as few state regulations, subsidies and taxes as possible. This is because they would all limit negative freedom and undermine the effectiveness of the free market. Smith argued that when left to pursue self-interest, individuals end up benefiting society as a whole and create an efficient economic system.
• Classical Liberals + Capitalism

  Classical liberals support capitalism as a means to achieve greater individual freedoms. They recognise that it creates an unequal society based on equality of outcome, but laissez-faire economics would make society wealthier and improve conditions for everyone. It also supports their view of a meritocracy.
• Development of Modern Liberalism

  For much of the middle and upper classes, the Industrial Revolution was a time of prosperity as they enjoyed increasing wealth and the decrease in cost of consumer goods. But, for workers, work was hard and often dangerous. Many lived in unclean and unsafe environments, with no access to education or further life choices. ML developed based on reform to benefit the poorest and promote their freedom and equality of opportunity.
• Modern Liberalism + Human Nature

  Human beings are rational and self-interested, and mostly guided by desire for pleasure and avoidance of pain. But, liberals like Mill put forward the idea that people will also focus on the interests of common good. He also suggested that some pleasure was more beneficial than others, as they do more for us in the long run (hobbies v addiction). Humans needed help in order to reach their full potential - developmental individualism. They are also innately social creatures, and cannot develop in isolation.
• Modern Liberalism + Society

  Modern liberals believe in a progressive, though still unequal, society that encourages tolerance and equality of opportunity. The Beveridge Report in the post-war era identified that society was plagued by ‘five giants’ - want, ignorance, disease, squalor and idleness - which combine to restrict freedom because it prevents people from focusing on individual desires, as basic needs are not fulfilled. In this way, ML view society as far less atomistic, and they argue that humans cannot develop in isolation.
• Modern Liberalism + Freedom

  Modern liberals believed in positive freedom, which is the freedom to develop, grow and fulfil goals. They viewed inequality, poverty and a lack of education as factors that restricted individual freedom. Green argued that there is not freedom when people are acting under compulsion, explaining it as people agreeing to contracts to avoid a worse alternative. The state, therefore, has a role in bettering society for the least fortunate in order to ensure that society is free.
• Modern Liberalism + The State

  Modern liberals believe that the state has a role in using legislation to implement regulations for workplaces or limits to labour contracts in order to ensure the safety of those agreeing to employment. This removes a barrier to freedom. The state should also be promoting positive rights such as right to education, fair pay and healthcare. This would be described as an ‘enabling state’ which actively promotes freedom and opportunity for self-realisation.
• Modern Liberalism + The Economy

  Modern liberals preferred Keynesian economic: Keynes argued that economic depressions could be avoided by having governments manage demands. It would allow greater employment levels, ensuring more individuals have a living wage, and higher spending to boost economic prosperity. Notably, this means that ML believes the state has a more active role in the economy.