cattle husbandry

• Cattle are ruminants, which means that they have developed a special system of digestion that involves the microbial fermentation of food in a large fermentation vat (the reticulorumen) prior to its exposure to the body's own digestive enzymes
• Rumen function

  1. Fibrous food material is broken down by rumination

  2. Rumen conditions must be optimal for microbial fermentation

  3. Production of 100-150 litres of saliva per day containing up to 3.5kg of bicarbonate to buffer rumen pH
• Cattle feed

  • Forages (grazing grass, grass silage, maize silage, other whole crop silages, hay, straw)
  • Concentrates (compound feeds, barley, wheat, soya, brewer's grains)
• Products from the UK cattle industry

  • Milk
  • Meat (young cattle, cull cattle)
  • Hide
• The UK cattle industry in 2017 had 1.6 million beef cows, 0.4 million in-calf beef heifers, 1.9 million dairy cows, and 0.3 million in-calf dairy heifers
• UK beef production in 2017 was 1,975,000 animals, which was 76% of UK beef consumption
• The UK exported 143,000 tonnes of beef and imported 242,000 tonnes from the EU and 20,900 tonnes from the rest of the world
• Innate behaviour


  Instinctive or unlearned reactions
• Acquired behaviour


  Actions that are learnt
• Maintenance behaviour in cattle

  • Eating
  • Drinking
  • Urination
  • Defecation
  • Resting
  • Sleeping
• Inadequate trough space, lying down time, and introduction of heifers into the herd can lead to problems with maintenance behaviour
• Exploration behaviour in cattle

  • Smelling, licking, or attempting to eat novel objects
  • Can lead to ingestion of harmful objects
• Social behaviour in cattle

  • Establish and preserve social hierarchy
  • Excessive competition for resources can exacerbate aggression
  • Mixing cattle at markets can disrupt social order
• Sexual and maternal behaviour in cattle

  • Sexual behaviour is important for artificial insemination
  • Maternal behaviour may be affected by early calf removal and artificial rearing
• Calving index


  Measure of reproductive efficiency, should be 365 days (282 days pregnancy + 83 days calving to conception)
• Oestrus detection and insemination

  1. Oestrus occurs every 17-25 days, lasts 16 hours, ovulation occurs 12 hours after end

  2. Behavioural signs include restlessness, bellowing, mounting, vulval discharge

  3. AM/PM rule for insemination
• Beef suckler herds use natural service by bulls exhibiting strong sexual behaviour
• The majority of dairy cows in the UK are bred using artificial insemination
• Cows observed in heat in the evening

  Should be inseminated the next morning
• Reduced heat expression in modern dairy cows

  Farmers are now advised to inseminate cows as soon as they see them in heat
• Behavioural signs of oestrus

  • Restlessness
  • Bellowing
  • Grouping of cows together
  • Scuff marks on the tail head and flanks
  • Standing to be mounted by other cows
• Behavioural signs of oestrus

  • Decrease in milk yield
  • Increase in body temperature
  • Clear vulval mucous discharge (termed the "bulling string")
• Incorrect detection of cows in oestrus

  Leads to insemination of cows that do not conceive
• Missing cows in oestrus

  Results in assumptions that cows not seen in oestrus are pregnant, when they are not
• Natural service

  Bulls should exhibit strong signs of sexual behaviour ("libido"), including the flehman response ("lipcurl") in response to the smell of a cow in oestrus
• Artificial insemination (AI)

  • Enables rapid genetic improvement in the herd (eg. enhancement of milk yield, milk quality, body conformation)
  • Allows accurate breeding records to be kept and thus precise calving dates are known, which enables good herd management
  • Can be performed by a trained operator provided by an insemination service (eg. Genus), or by trained farm staff (termed DIY AI)
  • Pregnancy rates to AI of 50 – 60% are obtainable if cows are inseminated at the correct time using the correct technique with good quality semen
  • May also control venereal diseases
• Drawbacks of AI

  • Correct identification of cows in oestrus
  • Substantial maintenance costs associated with keeping a bull (eg. feeding, foot-trimming, health and safety)
  • Sharing bulls is an excellent method of spreading venereally transmitted diseases
  • Some bulls (especially dairy breeds) may be aggressive, and the fertility of the bull maybe uncertain
  • As the exact day of service in usually unidentified, then the calving dates are unknown and management is thus poor (eg. time of drying off)
• Methods to confirm pregnancy

  • Observed return to oestrus at 18-24 days
  • Manual rectal palpation (6-8 weeks after conception)
  • Transrectal ultrasonography (from about 4 weeks after conception)
  • Hormone assays, such as measurement of progesterone levels in the milk at 24 days after insemination
  • Pregnancy Associated Glycoproteins (PAG) rise approximately 2 months after successful insemination
• Pregnancy Associated Glycoproteins (PAG)

  • Rise approximately 2 months after successful insemination in cows
  • Levels remain elevated for 2 months after the end of pregnancy, so best used for the confirmation of pregnancy at day 60 – 90 post-insemination
• Farm assurance schemes were originally set up by the agricultural industry and food retailers in response to consumer pressure following a number of food safety scares
• Aim of farm assurance schemes

  Improve consumer confidence and food safety, and provide traceability for UK farm produce
• There are currently over 20 separate schemes in existence in the UK, and although they are voluntary, they presently cover over 90% of the UK production of milk and pork and 65% of the beef and lamb production
• The current schemes have been criticised by some (including the Food Standards Agency) as being too closely connected to the agricultural industry and not representing consumer concerns
• The large number of different schemes with differing requirements has also created confusion within consumers
• Assured Food Standards

  An independent "umbrella" organisation that assimilated the majority of schemes, with the establishment of minimum core criteria for individual schemes and more co-operation between schemes to avoid confusion
• Levels of farm assurance schemes

  • Baseline schemes (aimed at increasing general standards of production, most under the Red Tractor logo)
  • Higher level / premium schemes (have specific welfare or organic benefits)
• Almost all milk purchasers insist that their dairy farmers are members of the Dairy Scheme (over 90% of UK milk is covered by the scheme), and the dairy farms have to comply with the set standards
• The standards are set by representatives of farmers (NFU), the dairy industry (Federation of Milk Groups, Dairy Industry Federation) and veterinary surgeons (BCVA), in consultation with milk industry representatives
• Standards for assessment in the Red Tractor Assurance: Dairy Scheme

  • Documents and Procedures
  • Staff and Labour Providers
  • Traceability and Assurance Status
  • Vermin Control
  • Milk Production
  • Housing, Shelter and Handling Facilities
  • Feed and Water
  • Animal Health and Welfare
  • Artificially Reared Youngstock (Calves and Lambs)
  • Biosecurity and Disease Control
  • Animal Medicines and Husbandry Procedures
  • Fallen Stock
  • Livestock Transport
  • Responsible Use of Agrochemicals
  • Nutrient Management
• Herd Health plan templates

  Available, vet involvement not essential