Learning

• Classical conditioning


  Stimulus produces a response
• Classical conditioning


  1. Stimulus is what is done to a person

  2. Response is a reflex action
• UCS


  Unconditioned stimulus
• UCR


  Unconditioned response
• NS


  Neutral stimulus
• CS


  Conditioned stimulus
• CR


  Conditioned response
• Classical conditioning


  1. UCS ——> UCR

  2. NS ——> NO RESPONSE

  3. UCS + NS ——> UCR

  4. CS ——> CR
• Extinction


  1. Association between UCS and CS no longer occurs

  2. After a few trials of separating the stimuli the learned response is extinguished
• Spontaneous recovery


  Reappearance of the CR after it has been extinguished
• Stimulus generalisation


  Stimulus that is similar to the specific one that evokes the CR
• Watson and Rayner - possible to train little Albert to associate fear of a loud noise with a white rat —> can explain how phobias develop
• Bandura - children learnt aggression through observation and imitation of a role model but not through association —> not only way behaviour is learnt
• Pavlov's aim was to see if dogs could learn to associate a NS of metronome with receiving food producing a salivation response
• Pavlov's sample


  • 35 different breed dogs
  • All raised in lab conditions
• Pavlov's procedure


  1. Tube attached to salivary glands —> drained saliva into measuring apparatus

  2. Dog was fed a bowl of meat and a metronome was heard for a few seconds

  3. Or metronome was started and no food given
• Before learning


  Food lead to salivation —> metronome produced no response
• During learning


  Food repeatedly paired with metronome —> lead to salivation
• After learning


  Metronome lead to salivation on its own
• Watson and Rayner's aim was to see if they could classically condition a fear response in a child towards an animal by presenting it to an infant child with a loud noise
• Watson and Rayner's sample


  • Little Albert was a 9 month old male
  • Raised mostly in a hospital environment - mother worked there
  • Reported to be unemotional
• Watson and Rayner's procedure


  1. Presented with a white rat

  2. When he reached in to touch the rat a loud bang was made (done twice)

  3. Exposed to the pairing of the rat with a loud noise (more than 5 times)

  4. Tested on his response to the rat when a loud bar was struck behind his head

  5. Tested with other objects (wooden blocks, dog, cotton wool) in the same way

  6. Taken to a new environment and tested to see his responses to objects and loud noises

  7. Tested with a variety of different objects (Santa clause mask, fur coat, rat)
• Positive reinforcement


  Something desired is given in response to a behaviour to encourage repetition
• Negative reinforcement


  Something undesired is taken away in response to behaviour to encourage repetition of desired behaviour
• Positive punishment


  Something undesired is given as a consequence to unwanted behaviour
• Negative punishment


  Removal of something pleasant as a consequence of undesired behaviour so unwanted behaviour stops
• Primary reinforcement


  Removal of a reward that meets a basic need
• Secondary reinforcement


  Using rewards that in themselves are not a basic need but can be used to satisfy basic needs
• Fixed ratio


  How often behaviour has to occur before a reward is given
• Variable ratio


  Number of times behaviour is shown is varied before reward
• Fixed interval


  Consistent timings between reinforcement
• Variable interval


  Varied timings between reinforcement
• Skinner - found that when a rat was placed in a 'skinner box' it quickly learnt to press a lever for a reward —> giving positive reinforcement would lead to behaviour being learnt
• Behaviour modification


  • Change problematic behaviour using operant conditioning
  • Increase outcome of desired behaviours
  • Works by making a person aware of the consequences
  • Gradually changes behaviours
  • Token economy —> targets behaviour and exchanged for rewards
• Shaping


  • Desired behaviour broken down into simpler steps
  • Reinforced to help a more complex behaviour to be created
  • Each reward is given for getting closer to desired behaviour
  • Basic response is rewarded and becomes more difficult to obtain over time
• Lentz - only 11% of patients who received token economy needed further drug treatment compared to 100% control group —> offering reinforcement can result in behaviour changes
• Lentz - no change occurred in sz patients experiencing delusions —> behaviour modification only changed in overt behaviour of the disorder and not psychological factors
• Modelling


  Behaviour modelled by another person (role-model)
• Observation


  Someone observes the role model
• Imitation


  The person will copy the role models behaviour