Gender and culture bias

• bias 


  when a psychologists pre-existing beliefs influence their theories and data interpretation

  creates understanding based on misconceptions
• gender bias 


  The differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real difference.

  happens when researchers' stereotypical views about male and female behaviour affect they theories
• universality

  
  

  The aim to develop theories that apply to all people, which may include real differences. This describes any underlying characteristic of human behaviour which

  can be applied to all individuals, regardless of their differences. Bias, lack of validity and issues with reliability reduce the universality of psychological findings.
• androcentrism

  taking male thinking/behavior as normal, regarding female thinking/behavior as deviant, inferior, abnormal, ‘other’ when it is different. In the past most psychologists were male, and the theories they produced tended to represent a male view of the world
• alpha bias

  • refers to theories which exaggerate the differences between males and females
• example of alpha bias (freud )


  Psychodynamic explanations for offending behaviour suggests that criminality occurs due to a deviant superego. According to Freud, since females do not experience castration anxiety, they are under less pressure and have less of a need to identify with the moral standards of their same-sex parent, as compared to boys. This suggests that females, in line with the psychodynamic approach, are less moral than males - an idea which has been refuted by Hoffman et al.
• example of alpha bias (schizophrenia)


  Historically, since the 1980s, schizophrenia has been diagnosed more frequently in men compared to women, whereas before this time there had been no significant differences. This is an example of alpha bias, according to Cotton et al, because women are more likely to be able to continue working, maintain good interpersonal relationships and show less distress than men. This means that the schizophrenic symptoms of women may be masked or not severe enough to merit a diagnosis
• consequences of alpha bias

  • Feminists argue that although gender differences are minimal or non-existent, they are used against women to maintain male power. So can sustain prejudices and stereotypes.
  • Reverse alpha bias describes the development of theories that show a greater emphasis on women = Research by Cornwell et al (2013) showed that women are better at learning because they are more attentive, flexible and organised. Such research challenges the stereotype that in any gender differences the male position must be better and challenges people’s preconceptions.
• beta bias 


  traditionally ignored or minimised sex differences. These theories often assume that the findings from males can apply equally to females.
• example of beta bias (social influence )


  Milgram study included 40 male participants and focused on obedience to male authority figures, overlooking differences in response to female authority figures which is an example of beta bias

  • Asch's conformity study was conducted only with male participants, ignoring the possibility of gender-specific differences. Was influenced by the belief that male subjects would yield generalisable results
• consequences of beta bias

  • Beta bias has allowed women greater opportunities by ignoring the power differences. However researchers pointed out that arguing for equality draws attention away from women’s special needs, for example equal parenting ignores the biological demands of pregnancy, childbirth. Therefore, this suggests that some elements of beta bias may actually disadvantage women.
  • Is considered as an egalitarian approach but it results in major misrepresentations of both genders.
• reducing gender bias

  • Cornwell et al. (2013) females are better at learning, as they are more attentive and organised, emphasising the value and positive attributes of women. This type of research helps to reduce or challenge gender stereotypes
  • Worrell (1992) suggested a number of research criteria that are important to ensure non-gender biased research investigations: using alternative methods to explore personal lives of women; considering women in natural settings in which they function; collaborating with research participants to explore relevant variables, studying diverse samples
• culture bias 


  The tendency to judge all cultures and individuals in terms of your own cultural assumptions. This distorts or biases your judgements.
• Smith and Bond

  • found that 66% of participants in European textbooks on social psychology were American, 32% European, and only 2% from the rest of the world.
• culture bias and schizophrenia 


  in the UK and West Indies, sz prevalence is only 1%

  however, people from the west Indies living in the UK have a higher diagnosis rate - 9x more likely

  Fernando suggests this discrepancy is due to a category failure where western definitions of mental health are applied inappropriately to non-western
• Ethnocentrism


  when a researcher takes their own culture as the norm and interprets deviations from this as abnormal

  Ethnocentric people often view their cultural norms as correct, leading to difficulties in understanding or accepting other cultural practices

  this can affect the interpretation of cross-cultural research
• example of ethnocentrism (Ainsworth)


  developed to assess attachment types + researchers assume that it has the same meaning for the infants from other cultures, as it does for American children. German children, demonstrate a higher rate of insecure-avoidant behaviour. It is not the case that German mothers are more insensitive than American mothers. Instead, they value + encourage independent behaviour so their children react differently in the Situation. TSS has been described as an imposed etic, where a technique/theory is developed in one culture and then imposed on another.
• cultural relativism 


  the principle that human behaviour should be understood within the context of the specific culture where it occurs, taking into account the cultures norms, values and beliefs
• example of cultural relativism

  Milgram’s study into obedience was originally conducted using 40 male American participants, but then also replicated using Spanish students

  (Miranda et al. found over 90% obedience rates in Spanish students) and Australian students (where only 16% of female participants continued to the highest voltage setting, as shown by Kilham and Mann). This suggests that Milgram’s original results were specifically bound to American cultures.
• etic construct


  a behaviour that is thought to be universal across all cultural groups
• emic construct


  a behaviour that only applies to certain cultural groups.
• culture bias (weakness)


  universal behaviours still exist

  Ekman et al. demonstrated that facial expressions for anger, guilt and disgust were universally recognised across all cultures. In terms of attachment, interactional synchrony and reciprocity are universal features of infant-caregiver interactions. Therefore, this suggests that to fully understand behaviour, we must look at both universal and culture-bound examples.
• consequences of cultural bias

  The US army IQ test showed that European immigrants fell slightly below white Americans in terms of IQ. This data has a profound effect on

  attitudes held by Americans towards certain groups of people, leading to stereotyping and discrimination.
• dealing with culture bias

  • to minimise bias in theory construction: don't assume universal norms, any universality claims should have empirical evidence
  • indigenous psychology: research conducted by individuals who are native to/deeply understand culture being investigated
  • use diverse samples, carry out cross-cultural research e.g van ijzendoorn
  • reflexive approach: researcher reflecting on their beliefs - recognising the effects of these