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• Types of natural hazards


  • Tectonic hazards (volcanoes, tsunamis, earthquakes)
  • Biological hazards (forest fires)
  • Geomorphological hazards (flooding, mudslides, rockslides)
  • Atmospheric hazards (hurricanes, tornadoes, lightning, rain)
• Why do people live in hazardous areas?

  • They don't want to leave
  • They believe defences will protect them
  • They don't believe the hazard will occur
  • Economic reasons (jobs, facilities)
  • Social reasons (don't know where to go, language barriers)
• Human activity impacts climate change


  Leads to more flooding and extreme weather events
• Tectonic plates


  • They are part of the Earth's crust and are constantly moving
  • Oceanic crust is thin and less dense than continental crust
  • Destructive plate margin (continental-continental, continental-oceanic)
  • Conservative plate margin (plates move against each other)
  • Constructive plate margin (plates move away from each other)
• Predicting volcanic eruptions


  1. Monitor temperature, gases, gravity changes

  2. Use satellite data to monitor ground movements
• Mitigating earthquake risks

  1. Map affected areas

  2. Locate critical buildings away from hazards

  3. Secure furniture in buildings

  4. Educate population

  5. Stockpile supplies

  6. Conduct earthquake drills
• Mapping areas affected by earthquakes

  • Identify areas that might be affected so hospitals and important buildings can be situated safely
  • Ensure buildings have furniture fastened down to reduce damage from flying objects
  • Educate local population on what to do in an earthquake
  • Stockpile food and medical supplies
  • Have earthquake drills to practice response
• Eye of the storm


  Dry and calm as cold air sinks, stops gaining energy from water
• Climate change effects on tropical storms


  • Increased temperatures, sea levels, moisture in air leads to more severe storms, higher rainfall, and greater destructive impact
  • Storms becoming more frequent and unpredictable
• Reducing effects of tropical storms

  • Plan storm shelters
  • Provide disaster supply kits
  • Educate public on response plans
  • Install storm shutters, drains, sea walls, reinforce buildings
  • Remove trees that could damage buildings
• Natural causes of climate change

  • Changes in Earth's tilt, orbital path
  • Variations and solar activity and volcanic eruptions
• Greenhouse gases

  • Carbon dioxide
  • Methane
  • Nitrous oxides
  • Water vapour
• Deforestation is removing the trees which removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
• Effects of climate change

  • Increased flooding
  • Decline in fishing industry due to rising sea temperatures and lowering of sea pH
  • Ice melting leading to loss of habitats
  • Increased access to oil and gases with increased use of fossil fuels
  • Tree line moving north
  • Decreased yields of maize, rice, and soy
  • Increase in forest fire
  • Increase in spread of pests
  • High levels of extinction in the Amazon Rainforest
  • Change from rainforest to Savanna
  • Loss of coral reefs due to high sea temperatures and lowering pH
  • Food shortages
  • Reduced water flow in rivers
  • Increased flooding
  • Increased spread of mosquitoes and thus malaria
  • Increasing droughts
  • Heath waves
  • Affecting the health of the vulnerable
• Some countries are more responsible than other countries for pumping carbon into the atmosphere, and some countries can afford to implement the mitigation strategies more than others
• When drawing food webs, the arrow indicates the direction of energy transfer, with producers getting energy from sunlight and consumers getting energy from producers
• Tropical rainforests


  • Very warm with little temperature variation
  • Very wet with rainy seasons
  • Different layers - top canopy, middle canopy, lower canopy
  • Infertile soil with rapid cycling of nutrients
  • Plants have shallow roots, leaves adapted to shed water, top canopy protects soil from erosion
  • Animals are specialists adapted to live in the rainforest
• Plant adaptations to cold environments


  • Very low growing
  • Thick bark
  • Small leaves
  • Hairy stems
  • Deep roots
  • Fast growing
• Alaska's economy


  • Gold extraction (historically)
  • Energy production (hydroelectric, geothermal)
  • Sustainable fishing
  • Tourism
• Environmental challenges in Alaska


  • Fragile wilderness environment
  • Vegetation takes a long time to establish
  • Damage from modern developments (e.g. off-road vehicles, oil spills, habitat destruction)
• Measures to protect fragile environments


  • Trans-Atlantic Pipeline
  • Antarctic Treaty
  • Conservation groups
• Estuaries


  Occur when large amounts of material are deposited, can form mud flats or salt flats