Final Exam

• Palmar

  Rear surface of fore paw that bears foot pads; opposite surface (i.e., front surface of the paw) is the dorsal surface
• Plantar

  Rear surface of hind paw that bears the foot backs; the opposite surface (as above) is the dorsal surface
• Median plane

  Divides the body longitudinally (right and left halves)
• Superficial

  Near surface of the body
• Deep

  Closer to center of body
• Cranial/Anterior

  Towards the front of the animal (toward head)
• Caudal/Posterior

  Toward rear end or tail of the animal (away from head)
• Medial

  Structures that lie towards the median plane
• Lateral

  Structures that lie towards the side of animal
• Dorsal

  Towards or near the back or vertebral column of the animal and the corresponding surfaces of the head, neck, and tail
• Ventral

  Towards or near the belly or lowermost surface of the body and the corresponding surfaces of the head, neck, and tail
• Rostral

  Towards nose; used to describe position of structures on the head
• Proximal

  Structures or part of structure that lie close to main mass of body (e.g. 'top' of the limb that attaches to the body); also used to describe parts near origin on a structure
• Distal

  Structure or part of structure that lie away from main mass of the body or origin (e.g., the free end of the limb)
• Structural systems

  • Skeletal
  • Muscular
  • Integument
  • Cardiovascular
• Coordinating systems

  • Nervous system
  • Endocrine system
• Visceral systems

  • Digestive system
  • Respiratory system
  • Urinary system
  • Reproductive system
• Cell membrane

  Plasma membrane: has phospholipid bilayer; a double layer of phospholipid molecules with protein molecules embedded within it
• Selective permeability of cell membrane

  Allowing some substances to pass through, while some are excluded or have to travel through specific systems
• Pore in cell membrane

  Small molecules can pass through pores
• Simple diffusion

  Molecules that are soluble in lipis (or fats) that passively dissolve in lipid part of the cell membrane and diffuse across it; oxygen and water enter this way
• Facilitated diffusion

  Passive diffusion; the substance is moving down a concentration gradient, but substance enlists the help of carrier protein to help it cross the membrane; glucose uses this method
• Active transport mechanisms

  Substances usually being moved from a region of low concentration to a higher concentration (traveling against concentration gradient) and requires energy. substances that require active transport to cross the cell membrane use a carrier protein to transport them across. the 'cost' for the service is that energy is needed, and supplied by cell's 'energy currency' — molecules of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Sodium enters the cell this way
• Cytoplasm

  Fluid that fills interior of cell, provides support. Nucleus and organelles are in the cytoplasm, along with solutes like glucose, proteins, and ions
• Nucleus

  Information center of the cell, surrounded by nuclear membrane and contains the chromosomes. Chromosomes are bearers of hereditary material, DNA which carries the information for protein synthesis. DNA is the 'set of instructions' that tell the cell how to function, these instructions are then passed onto the cell's descendants. Nucleus contains several nucleoli, where ribosomes are manufactured.
• Mitochondria

  Responsible for cellular respiration and are the site where energy is extracted from food substances and stored in a form that the cell can use ATP. They have a smooth outer membrane and a highly folded inner membrane — increasing surface area that ATP production takes place at. Found in abundance in cells that are very active in terms of energy consumption (e.g. skeletal muscle). When a cell needs energy, it uses the store of ATP molecules. Energy itself is stored in the bond that connects the phosphate group to the rest of the molecule. One of the phosphate groups is 'snapped off' the molecule, the bond is broken and energy is released. Remaining molecule is adenosine diphosphate (ADP), having only two phosphate groups attached to it. Cell needs to re-attach another phosphate group (carried out as part of the cell's metabolic processes) and energy can be stored once more as ATP
• Ribosomes

  Float free in cytoplasm and are the site for protein synthesis within the cell
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

  Network of membrane-lined interconnected tubes and cavities within the cytoplasm of the cell: Rough ER - many ribosomes attached to surface; function is to transport the synthesized proteins (from the ribosomes); some are not required by cell, which are then exported outside (e.g. digestive enzymes and hormones). Smooth ER - no ribosomes; function include synthesis and transport of lipids and steroids
• Golgi apparatus

  Stack of flattened sacs within cytoplasm; function includes modification of some proteins produced by cell (adding carb component) and plays part in formation of lysosomes

  
• Lysosomes

  Membrane-bound sacs that contain lysozymes or digestive enzymes; function is to digest materials taken in by the cell during the process of phagocytosis or endocytosis. Also destroy worn-out organelles within the cell and, in some cases, the cell itself
• Centrosome and centrioles

  Rod-like structures (centrioles). Lie at right angles to each other and involved in cell division
• Cilia and flagella

  Extension of plasma membrane seen on some cells of the body. Cilia are found in large numbers on outer surface of cells and responsible for creating a wave-like motion that moves fluid such as mucus and debris over the cell surface. Flagella are usually single and longer than cilia and move cell along by up and down movements; the only example in mammals is the tail of a spermatozoa
• Cell Division

  1. Prophase

  2. Metaphase

  3. Anaphase

  4. Telophase
• Diffusion

  Happens until an equilibrium is reached, no barrier against the ions or molecules. Can only happen if the particle size is small enough to pass through the cell membrane, if not, they go through osmosis
• Osmosis

  Movement of water through a semi-permeable membrane from low → high concentration. Responsible for water movement from interstitial fluid into the cells. Isotonic: fluid has the same osmotic pressure as plasma. Hypotonic: fluid has a lower osmotic pressure than plasma. Hypertonic: fluid has a higher osmotic pressure than plasma
• Tissue

  Collection of cells and products consisting of one main cell (ex: epithelial tissue or muscle tissue)
• Organ

  Collection of tissues forming structure within an animal is adapted to perform a specific purpose (ex: liver, larynx, kidney)

  
• System


  Collection of organ and tissues that are related by function (ex: respiratory system)
• Connective tissue types in order of increasing density

  • Blood
  • Haemopoietic tissue
  • Areolar tissue/loose connective tissue
  • Adipose/fatty tissue
  • Fibrous connective tissue/dense connective tissue
  • Cartilage
  • Bone
• Blood

  Specialized connective tissue circulating through blood vessels to carry nutrients and oxygen to cells, and waste products to excreting organs. Consists of blood cells within plasma