crim unit 2- theories

• genetic theories- Jacob's XYY

  some crimes may be due to chromosomal abnormalities. XX= women, XY=men. XYY on the rare occasion are known as super males: more aggressive and violent.

  Jacob et al 1965 supported this, suggested the extra Y more prone to criminality, XYY males more aggressive than XY.

  serial killer John Wayne Gacy had XYY chromosomes.
• genetic theories- XYY evaluation

  strengths= significant number of men in prison had XYY chromosomes.

  
  

  weaknesses= no explanation for aggression, focus too much on genetics, ignores behaviourist approach.
• genetic theories- twin studies

  heritable traits increase risk of criminal behaviour. identical twins are MZ and share 100% of DNA. non identical twins are DZ and share 50% of DNA. when both twins share a characteristic , its called a concordance rate.

  Christiansen 1977- studies 3,586 Danish island twin= 52% concordance rate, meant where one had a conviction so did the other. Related to someone w conviction, higher chance you will have one too.
• genetic theories- twin studies evaluation

  strengths= helped in prevention of vulnerable disorders.

  
  

  weaknesses=small sample- weak generalisation, doesn't rule out environmental factors causing criminality.
• genetic theories- adoption

  studies nature v nurture. if child is similar to biological parents, that is where criminality is from. if child is similar to adoptive, their criminality is from environment. found offspring w criminal records have biological parents w criminal convictions.

  Hutchings & Mednick 1975= studied 14,000 adopted sons in Denmark using records, 20% concordance rate to biological parents, where 14.2% adoptive.
• genetic theories- adoption evaluation

  strengths= splits genetics and environment causing crime.

  
  

  weaknesses= info abt biological parents may not always be available
• physiological theories- Lombroso

  Italian doctor who believed criminals can be identified through physical features. believed criminals are atavistic= less developed and less sensitive to pain. L studied faces of prisoners, alive and dead. atavistic features seen= high cheekbones, large ears, upturned/flattened nose. measured and recorded faces of convicted criminals, murderers= curly hair and beak-like noses. A Chinese university supported L, used facial recognition software of 1,856 criminals. 83% of real criminals were identified.
• physiological theories- Lombroso evaluation

  strengths= challenged view that criminals chose criminality

  
  

  weaknesses= racial discrimination: features described apply to African descent, research after L found no link between criminality and facial features.
• physiological theories- Sheldon's somatotype

  believed criminality linked to physical form. different features of our personality and behaviours linked to somatotypes.

  Endomorphic= fat and soft, sociable and relaxed.

  Ectomorphic= thin and fragile, introverted and restrained.

  Mesomorphic= muscular and aggressive, adventurous.

  mesomorphs most likely to commit crimes. asked ppl to rate 1-7 how close pic was to being a mesomorph. half= students, half= juvenile delinquents- higher avg as mesomorphs.
• physiological theories- Sheldon's evaluation

  strengths= criminal groups were mesomorphic.

  
  

  weaknesses= disregards somatotypes changing, neglects ends and ectomorphic criminals.
• physiological theories- brain abnormality

  rationality and self control through prefrontal cortex. damage to it can lead to immaturity and loss of self control.

  Raine et al 1994 used PET scans, w radioactive tracers absorbed into bloodstream to create 3D image of active cells. criminals and psychopaths studied had damage to PFC.

  supported by McIsaac et al, found ppl w brain injuries= twice as likely end up in jail.
• physiological theories- neurochemical

  low serotonin= high aggression. serotonin= regulates signals between neutrons, controlling ppl's moods. meta-analysis on 29 studies into anti social adults and children= showed low serotonin in all. foods like dark chocolate, cheese and salmon=raise serotonin. extreme levels of steroids= prone to violence.
• learning theories- differential associations

  sutherland argued criminality= learned through exposure to pro-crime attitudes in family. imitation and learned attitudes. sutherland found group attitudes in the workplace to normalise criminal behaviour, feelings of "everyone's doing it". shared belief makes it easier to justify own criminal behaviour.
• learning theories- operant conditioning

  behaviour results in a reward= likely to be repeated, result in an undesirable outcome= wont be repeated. if crime has more positive consequences than negative, criminality repeated to achieve results.
• learning theories- Bandura SLT & bobo doll.


  suggested we learn by watching and observing others- aggression can be learned.

  aim= if social behaviour can be learned through observing & imitating.

  sample= 36 boys, 36 girls ages 3-6.

  aggressive model, hit and threw bobo doll. child placed in room w/o model and observed if they imitated behaviours.

  results= aggressiveness seen in observers of aggressive model. children learn through observational learning. upbringing therefore play a part- behaviour of others influences your own.

  Sutherland et al 1992 suggested attitudes to crime are learned by those around them. growing up w ppl seeing crime positively- most likely for you to view it positively= differential associations.
• learning theories- Bandura SLT & bobo doll evaluation


  strengths= controlled variables (actions of model) greater accuracy, models do impact children's behaviours.

  
  

  weaknesses= ethical issues bc children exposed to violence and could cause physical/psychological harm.
• psychodynamic theories- freud


  believed childhood exps influences behaviour later in life. most of mind is unconscious. he examined his patients- concluded early exps result in inner unresolved conflicts, becoming mental heath issues/anti social behaviour. ID= selfish and animalistic urges part of our unconscious. EGO= rational and sensible, part of our unconscious and conscious. SUPEREGO= moral- right from wrong. healthy for all 3 to be balanced. if imbalanced, disturbed personality. IDD dominating leads to criminality. going from pleasure principle of ID dominating reality principle of ego dominating needs to happen. if transition doesn't occur in a stable environment, criminals.
• psychodynamic theories- freud evaluation


  strengths= research shows most criminals come form unstable homes, w traumatic childhoods.

  
  

  weaknesses= lack of quantitative data, theory relies on interpretations- diff analysts get diff results.
• psychological theories- eysenck


  believed certain personalities are more prone to criminality: crave excitement but slow to understand its consequences. Eysenck identified 2 dimensions of personality. 1st= extraversion/introversion, relating to amount of stimulation needed. extroverts= sociable but quickly bored if no stimulation. introverts= reliable and control of own emotions. 2nd= neuroticism/stability., referring to one's emotional stability.

  neurotics- anxious and irrational. stable= calm and emotionally stable. 3rd dimension later discovered- psychotics: cold, uncaring and violent. hard to condition them bc harder to adapt to social norms.

  scoring highly on E/N scale- committing crimes is easier; in constant need of stimulation therefore erotic.
• psychological theories- eysenck evaluation


  strengths= considers nature and nurture, this interactionist approach more valid than environmentalist or biological.

  
  

  weaknesses= personality may be inconsistent for e.g. diff personality at work than at home
• marxism


  Karl Marx- society as two classes: bourgeoisie & proletarians. Bourgeoisie= wealthy higher class, exploiting proletarians for profit. proletarians= lower working classes working for bourgeoisie. Marx argued capitalist societies cause crime. societies are based on money and private ownership- materialism and making more money. capitalist societies are set up in the interest of the bourgeoisie, w agents of social control (police, prison, CJS) siding w them. capitalism- criminogenic= crime as a result of inequality and this win poverty using crime to survive. capitalism pushes consumerism and materialism, turning to crime like theft to achieve luxury goods. many crimes committed by bourgeoisie dismissed or ignored. proletarians treated differently- expected to commit crime, likely to be detected.
• marxism evaluation


  strengths= shows how poverty and inequality can cause crime for lower classes.

  
  

  weaknesses= over-predicts amount of crime in working classes as not all poor ppl commit crimes, only covers 2 social classes (no middle classes e.g)
• functionalism- merton's strain theory


  merton suggested crime is due to an unequal society. Western life= abt materialistic success; no means of achieving this tho. those w blocked opportunities= no equal chance of achieving this. working classes are denied of achieving this materialism- blocked opportunities. they strive for good, but aren't provided w means or goals to achieve. 5 options for ppl:

  -conform and accept situation

  -innovate= adopt unconventional/criminal ways of getting materialism.

  -ritualism= give up trying.

  -retreatist=reject means and goals.

  -rebellion= reject existing means and goals, replace w new ones.
• functionalism- merton's strain theory evaluation


  strengths= explains why working classes commit crime

  
  

  weaknesses= too deterministic, not all working class ppl commit crimes.
• functionalism- durkheim


  durkheim sees crime as inevitable. every society has deviant individuals. crime= beneficial and functional:

  -helps boundary maintenance- right to wrong and unites society against wrongdoer.

  -social change- society's norms and values need to be challenged.

  -safety valve= expression of certain impulses w/o breaking down institutions within society.

  -warning light= shows smth wrong w society- high truancy rates, problems w eduction system.
• functionalism- durkheim evaluation


  strengths= first to notice positive functions of crime

  
  

  weaknesses= positive functions but not for victim, states little deviance is good for society but not how little.
• interactionism- labelling


  refers to how ppl interact w each other in society. no act is criminal/deviant, bourgeoisie decide what is criminal/deviant. committing deviant acts- labelled. respective person + society sees them as such, leading to self-fulfilling prophecy.

  -labelled person= likely to be marginalised- joining sub cultures to be accepted.

  -certain groups more likely to be deviant, targeted by police.

  -Lemert= labelling causes crime= primary deviance: act of deviance not socially labelled as such. secondary deviance: act labelled as deviant by society. label becomes person's main identity, internalising it and acting in a way that mirrors the label (self-fulfilling prophecy). media's contribution= 'demonise' labeled person, creating a moral panic. those labelled= seen as folk devils (bad influences). alienates them exacerbating the situation.
• interactionism- labelling evaluation


  strengths= role of media in defining and creating deviance.

  
  

  weaknesses= doesnt explain why ppl commit primary deviance before they're labelled.
• realism- right realism


  criminals as choosing crime- free thinking individuals, responsible for own actions. C.Murray= crime bf of poor social bonds, e.g. absent fathers- no strong male model for sons to rely on, inadequate socialisation. lack of good social structure= crime. society needs to discourage family breakdowns.
• realism- right realism evaluation


  strengths= practical approach, v straight forward

  
  

  weaknesses= neglects wider structural causes such as poverty.
• realism- left realism


  crime due to society's impact (deprivation). capitalism- inequality and pushes consumerism/materialism. Lea & Young- 'relative deprivation' media showing others' possessions- makes less fortunate feel deprived. sub cultures form for a sene of belonging, leading to crime to attain capitalist dream. tacking crime done through creating fairer and equal societies.
• realism- left realism evaluation


  strengths= multiple causes of crime.

  
  

  weaknesses= no explanation for white collar crimes.