APK 1 full

• Joints

  Connection of 2 bones: some stable some allow for more mobility
• Non-synovial joints (no synovial fluid)

  • Fibrous (e.g. forearm connecting radius and ulna)
  • Cartilaginous (e.g. pubic symphysis)
• Synovial joints

  Designed to move: bones are directly in contact but connected by a capsule which surrounds the joint
• Components of synovial joint capsule

  • Fibrous outer lining
  • Inner synovial membrane/synovium
• Synovial fluid

  Nourishes joint, lubricates articular cartilage, and has pressure distribution. It has thixotropic properties so its viscosity changes as it moves.
• Articular cartilage

  Protects the bone and helps with friction (acts as a shock absorber)
• Classifications of synovial joints

  • Gliding joint
  • Hinge joint
  • Pivot joint
  • Ellipsoid joint
  • Saddle joint
  • Ball and socket joint
• Gliding joint

  One surface is fixed, and another slides off it
• Hinge joint

  Movements of extension and flexion occur
• Pivot joint

  Purely rotatory
• Ellipsoid joint

  Have 2 planes of movement. Articulating surfaces are ovoid in shape and usually allow for flexion, extension and abduction, adduction
• Saddle joint

  In one direction its concave, in another direction its convex
• Ball and socket joint

  Triapsal: allow for 3 planes of movement – flexion, extension and medial rotation, lateral rotation and abduction, adduction
• Planes of movement

  • Frontal/coronal
  • Sagittal/median
  • Transverse/horizontal
• Frontal/coronal plane

  Divides the body front to back. Movements that occur are any that go out to side (abduction, adduction, side flexion)
• Sagittal/median plane

  Divides body into right and left. Movements that occur are those that go forward and back (flexion and extension)
• Transverse/horizontal plane

  Parallel to the floor. Movements that occur are any that are parallel to floor (rotation)
• Spinal column


  • 24 vertebrae
  • 5 fused (sacrum)
  • 4 fused (coccyx)
• Spinal curves

  • Cervical lordosis
  • Thoracic kyphosis
  • Lumbar lordosis
  • Sacro-coccygeal kyphosis
• Purpose of S-shaped curve

  Dissipates vertical compressive forces so provides shock absorption
• Cervical and thoracic movements

  • Flexion and extension
  • Lateral flexion
  • Rotation
• Main function of cervical spine

  Weight bearing for the head, mobility to allow our field of vision
• Function of thoracic spine

  More restrictive in its range to protect the vital organs like heart and lungs
• Typical cervical vertebra

  • Vertebral body
  • Short slender bifid spinous process
  • Pedicle
  • Lamina
  • Transverse process
  • Transverse foramen (for vertebral artery)
  • Round triangular spinal canal
  • Intervertebral foramen
• Facet joints/zygapophyseal joints

  Articulations between the right and left superior articulating facets and the right and left inferior facets of the adjacent vertebrae. They are plane diarthrodial joints and synovial. Control movement at the intervertebral segment. Resist shear, compression, and tensile forces.
• Superior facet

  Face superiorly/medially
• Inferior facet

  Face anteriorly and laterally
• Joints in the thorax

  • Costovertebral
  • Costotransverse
  • Sternocostal
  • Costochondral
  • Interchondral (ribs 6-10)
• Ligaments of the spine

  • Anterior longitudinal
  • Posterior longitudinal
  • Ligamentum flavum
  • Ligamentum nuchae
  • Interspinous
  • Supraspinous
  • Intertransverse
• Muscles around cervical spine - posterior aspect

  • Trapezius: upper, middle, lower
  • Rhomboids
  • Levator Scapulae
  • Erector spinae: splenius capitis, splenius cervicis, semispinalis capitis
  • Mulifidus
• Muscles around cervical spine - anterior aspect

  • Sternocleidomastoid
  • Scalenes: anterior, middle, posterior
  • Pectoralis major, pectoralis minor, intercostals
  • Longus coli, sternohyoid, sternothyroid, omohyoid
• Function of cervical spine

  Provides support for the weight of your head, surrounds, and protects your spinal cord and allows for a wider range of head motions
• Function of thoracic spine


  Works with the ribcage to protect the heart and lungs. Joints are tight enough to protect vital organs but also loose enough to allow for the movements of breathing (inspiration and expiration)
• Movements available at cervical spine

  • Flexion
  • Extension
  • Lateral flexion to the left/right
  • Rotation left/right
• Limiting factors for cervical and thoracic spine movements

  The ribcage and ligaments limit the movements in order to protect vital organs
• Structures of cervical vertebra (C3-C6)

  • Vertebral body
  • Short slender bifid spinous process
  • Pedicle
  • Lamina
  • Transverse process
  • Transverse foramen (for vertebral artery)
  • Round triangular spinal canal
  • Intervertebral foramen
• Structures of thoracic vertebra (T2-T11)

  • Vertebral body
  • Small circular spinal canal
  • Spinous process long and slope
  • Demi facets for articulation with head of ribs
  • Transverse process – costal facets which articulates with a tubercle on the neck of the rib
• Atypical cervical vertebrae

  • C1 (atlas): no vertebral body or spinous process, huge and strong transverse processes, superior articular facets are concave and articulate with the occiput, posterior tubercle, facet for the dens/odontoid process
  • C2 (axis): provides a pivot around which the atlas and head rotate, has a small vertebral body, transverse processes are small and rounded projections, a strong stout spinous process, odontoid process/dens
  • C7 (vertebra prominens): supports the collective weight of the head and neck, contains a long spinous process, does not traverse the transverse foramen
• Atypical thoracic vertebrae

  • T1 and T12
• How the shape of different vertebrae contributes to the normal curves of the spine

  The spine is S-shaped when viewed from the side which allows for an even distribution of weight and flexibility for movement. Cervical spine curves slightly inwards (lordotic), thoracic spine curves outwards (kyphotic), lumbar spine curves inward (lordotic)