childbearing & child rearing

• Total Fertility Rate


  The number of children who would be born per woman or per 1000 women
• General Fertility Rate


  Number of live births per 1000 women of reproductive age in a population per year
• Birth Rate


  The number of live births per 1000 of population per year
• Long term decline in the number of births since 1900 - 28.7 - but by 2014 - 12.2
• Average number of children women will have during their fertile years has risen in recent years, but it is still much lower than in the past. 1.63 children per woman in 2001, rose to 1.83 by 2014. However, this is still far lower than the peak of 2.65 children per woman in 1964 during the 1960s baby boom.
• Reasons for the decline in the birth rate


  • Decline in infant mortality rate
  • Changing norms about what children have a right to expect from their parents in material terms
  • Changes in female roles
  • More equality in theory because of the laws
  • Education
  • Gender roles in the home
  • Divorce
• Harper's view


  The education of women is the most important reason for the long term fall in birth and fertility rates. Because women are choosing careers, to not have children, delay having children or having less children
• 1970- 1/10 women childless (10%)

  2012- ⅕ women childless (20%)
• Average age having 1st child 1971 - 23.7 - 2018- 28.9 years old
• Fertility rate 1964 - 2.7 - 2021- 1.53
• Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)


  Number of children dying under 1 out of 1000 live births
• IMR UK - 1900 - 154/1000, 1950 - 30/1000, 2012 - 4/1000, 2021 3.7/1000
• Reasons for decline in IMR


  • Improved housing
  • Improved sanitation & hygiene
  • Better nutrition
  • Improved natal care (pre natal & antenatal hospitals and midwives)
  • Immunisation of children (NHS established 1948)
• Children are an economic liability & cost money. Laws banning child labour, changing norms & children at school longer. - cost of raising a child is increasing every year - £235,000 from birth to 18 and rising to£271,000 if going to 21 (uni).
• Child centredness


  Parents are choosing smaller families, less children - to devote more love, time and money
• Birth rate has decreased in the 20th century but increased slightly in the 21st due to immigration because immigrant families on average have more children, and cultural reasons e.g. not using contraception
• Effects of changes in birth and fertility rates


  • Smaller families mean that women are more likely to be free to go out to work, creating the dual earner couple typical of many professional families
  • Falling fertility rates mean fewer children, so childhood may become lonelier experience as fewer children will have siblings and more childless adults may mean fewer voices speaking up in support of children's interests
  • Fewer schools and maternity and child health services may be needed, affects the cost of maternity and paternity leave and the types of housing that need to be built
  • Ageing population - One effect of women having fewer babies is that the average age of the population is rising. There are more old people relative to young people