Science

• Crust - The earth outermost layer, the crust, is relatively thin compared to the other layers, It is composed primarily of solid rock and varies in thickness, with oceanic crust being thinner and denser than continental crust.
• Mantle - is composed mainly of solid rock, predominantly silicate minerals rich in magnesium and iron, the mostly solid bulk of Earth's interior. The mantle lies between Earth's dense, super-heated core and its thin outer layer, the crust.
• Outer Core - is primarily composed of molten iron and nickel, with some lighter elements such as sulfur and oxygen, is similar to a very hot ball of metals, whose temperature is around 4000°F to 90000°F. It is so hot that the metals inside are all liquid.
• Inner Core - extends from approximately 5,150 kilometers (3,200 miles) to the Earth's center, at about 6,371 kilometers (3,959 miles) below the surface, remains solid due to the immense pressure exerted by the layers above it..
• Lithosphere - It is the solid part of the earth , it consist of three main layer: crust, mantle , core.
• plate tectonic - it is a scientific theory that explains how major landforms are created as a result of Earth’s subterranean movements. The theory, which solidified in the 1960s, transformed the earth sciences by explaining many phenomena, including mountain building events, volcanoes, and earthquakes.
• Theory - The idea that continents moved over time had been proposed before the 20th century. However, a German scientist named Alfred Wegener changed the scientific debate. ALFRED Lothar Wegener published two articles about a concept called continental drift in 1912. He suggested that 200 million years ago, a supercontinent he called Pangaea began to break into pieces, its parts moving away from one another.
• divergent boundary - occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each other. Along these boundaries, earthquakes are common and magma (molten rock) rises from the Earth’s mantle to the surface, solidifying to create new oceanic crust
• convergent boundary - occurs where two tectonic plates collide. One plate may be forced beneath the other in what is known as subduction. This process creates deep trenches on the seafloor and can lead to volcanic eruptions or the formation of mountains.
• Transform boundaries - are places where plates slide sideways past each other. this can cause an earthquakes, large lateral displacement of rock, and a broad zone of crustal deformation.
• ROCKS - it is a combination of a unique set of minerals with properties that differentiate them from others, The mineral components varied because of chemical component and structure creating unique physical properties that allow them to be classified.
• igneous rocks - formed from molten material that has cooled and hardened. They form either below the ground's surface or above it during volcanic activity.
• Extrusive Igneous Rocks (Volcanic) - forms when magma or volcanic fragments erupt and solidify on Earth’s surface which results in very finegrained rock with very small crystals that could not be seen through the naked eye. It is also known as a volcanic rock.
• Intrusive Igneous Rocks (Plutonic) - forms when magma crystallizes within the crust and is composed of medium to coarse grains. It is also known as a plutonic rock. Generally, two types of intrusive bodies exist, namely: concordant and discordant types. When the preexisting rock bed is cut across by an intrusive body, it is termed as concordant while if it runs parallel to the bedrock, igneous rock bodies are called discordant
• SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - s form from eroded pieces of minerals, rocks, and fossils. These particles, or sediments, build up in layers through deposition. Sedimentary rocks form near the surface, by time and pressure.
• Clastic sedimentary rocks - It is made up of sediments from preexisting rocks. When preexisting rocks are physically weathered and eroded, they form sediments called clasts or detritus, which are composed of individual minerals or rock fragments.
• Biological sedimentary rocks - It is lithified accumulation of dead organisms
• Chemical sedimentary rocks - Non-clastic sedimentary rocks , A form from chemical precipitation
• Metamorphic rocks - form when other types of rocks change into new ones. They form deep underground. Metamorphic rocks require a lot of time, heat and pressure to form
• TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

  Foliated metamorphic rocks

  Non-foliated metamorphic rocks
• MINERALS - is a naturally occuring, inorganic, homogenous solid, with a definite chemical composition, and an ordered crystalline structure
• FRACTURE - is the pattern in which the mineral breaks aside from its planes of cleavage. This happens when the atomic bonds are of equal strength.
• Hardness - is the resistance of the minerals to scratching. It is measured by scratching the mineral with another object of known hardness
• Specific gravity - is the ratio of a mineral’s weight to the weight of an equal volume of water.
• Hydrosphere - the totality of water surrounding the earth, comprising all the bodies of water, ice and water vapor held in the atmosphere
• Hydrological Cycle - it is the movement of water between the earth and atmosphere, it describe how the water exchange through hearts, land,ocean and atmosphere
• Evaporation - is the change of state in a substance from liquid to a gas
• Transpiration - is the process where the plants absorb water through the roots ad then gives off water vapor through the pores called stomata.
• Condensation - is the process whereby water vapor in the atmosphere is changed into a liquid state.
• Precipitation - is the result of when tiny condensation particles grow too large.
• Runoff - is the flow of surface water overland as a result of precipitation that does not soak into the ground.
• Atmosphere - The gases that surround the Earth and make up the air.
• Trophosphere - the bottom layer of the atmosphere
• Stratosphere - The layer of the atmosphere that extends from the tropopause to the mesopause.
• Mesosphere - The layer of the atmosphere above the stratosphere, extending from about 50 km (31 mi) to about 86 km (53 mi).
• Thermosphere (Ionosphere) - The region of the atmosphere above the mesosphere and below the thermosphere
• Weather - The state of the atmosphere at a particular place and time.
• Climate - The average weather conditions in a particular area over a long period of time.
• Temperature - The average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance.
• Biosphere - it is the region of the earth where life exists, including soil, water and air, extending from the deepest root system