BIO TEST 2 (2)

• PLANTS


  store energy as carbohydrate, make their own food, have cell walls made of cellulose and their cells have a nucleus and organelles.
• ALL PLANTS NEED


  sunlight, minerals, water and nitrogen to survive.
• SOIL


  is formed by weathering and biological activity and therefore may contain weathered rock and decaying organic matter.
• LICHENS


  produce acids that release minerals from rock and bacteria add nitrogen from the atmosphere to the soil.
• The following sequences of ecological succession:


  lichens, mosses, herbs, shrubs, pine trees, and broad leaf trees.
• Plants compete for:


  sunlight, space, minerals and water.
• The following sequence is in the correct order of the evolution of the plants.


  green algae, nonvascular plants, vascular plants, seed bearing plants, and flowering plants.
• LIVERWORTS


  are flat nonvascular plants that are dependent on moist environments.
• MOSSES


  are erect nonvascular plants that are dependent on moist environments.
• FERNS


  are primitive vascular plants that are dependent on moist environments.
• CONIFERS


  are vascular plants that live in terrestrial environments and depend on wind for fertilization.
• FLOWERING PLANTS


  are vascular plants that live in terrestrial environments and depend on animals for fertilization
• EARLY PLANTS


  did not have vascular tissue.

  
  

  had limited growth in height.

  
  

  had shallow roots because their habitats.

  
  

  did not have well developed soil.

  
  

  and were dependent on water in the environment for fertilization.
• EARLY PLANTS


  were capable of reproducing asexually and were dependent on water in the environments for fertilization.

  
  

  Early terrestrial plants that did not live in moist environments were dependent on wind for fertilization.

  
  

  The plants that are dependent on insects and birds for fertilization evolved more recently and have outcompeted those dependent on wind in many environments.
• The following are true about plant adaptations to specific environments:

  Plants in dry environments tend to have a thick cuticle.

  
  

  Plants in dry environments tend to have thick, fleshy leaves.

  
  

  Plants in wet environments tend to have large, broad leaves.

  
  

  Plants in wet environments tend to have a thin cuticle.
• ROOTS


  store starch, anchor the plant, and transport water.
• LEAVES


  have palisade cells that perform photosynthesis.

  
  

  an epidermis that secretes a waxy cuticle.

  
  

  stomata that regulate gas exchange.

  
  

  a loose layer of mesophyll that allows for gas exchange.
• STEMS


  provide for greater height to compete for sunlight with other plants.

  
  

  transport water and minerals to the leaves.

  
  

  transport sugar that is made in the leaves to the roots for storage.

  
  

  the woody stem of a dicot tree can grow a new ring of xylem each season.
• PLANT CELL


  contains a cell wall made of cellulose.

  
  

  chloroplasts that perform photosynthesis.

  
  

  a central vacuole for waste and turgor pressure.

  
  

  a nucleus and organelles
• ANIMALS


  are heterotrophic.

  
  

  ingest their food.

  
  

  digestion of the food takes place outside of their cells.

  
  

  the cells absorb the products of digestion.
• PLANT HABITATS


  The leeward side of a mountain range tends to contain plants adapted to a dry environment.

  
  

  The equatorial and sixty-degree latitudes tend to contain forests.

  
  

  The thirty degree and polar latitudes tend to contain deserts.

  
  

  Descending dry air can be responsible for deserts.
• Energy available in ecosystems

  Gross primary production is the total energy captured by autotrophs in an ecosystem.

  
  

  Net primary production is the energy used by the autotrophs in respiration subtracted

  from the gross primary production.

  
  

  Net primary production results in growth and reproduction in the autotrophs.

  
  

  Net primary production is the energy available to the heterotrophs in an ecosystem.
• TROPHIC LEVELS


  Chemosynthesizers obtain their energy from oxidizing inorganic molecules.

  
  

  Plants obtain their energy from the sun.

  
  

  Herbivores obtain their energy from the plants.

  
  

  Primary carnivores obtain their energy from the herbivores.

  
  

  Secondary carnivores obtain their energy from primary carnivores.

  
  

  Omnivores obtain energy from many trophic levels.

  
  

  Detritovores obtain energy from dead organic matter.
• ECOSYSTEMS


  Available energy for a trophic level is the net energy from the previous level.

  
  

  Energy in an ecosystem is lost through the trophic levels through respiration.

  
  

  Populations and overall biomass is smaller at higher trophic levels.

  
  

  Biomass is the combined mass of a group of living organisms.
• ANIMAL CELLS


  the cytoskeleton gives shape to the cell.

  
  

  centrioles transport chromosomes during mitosis.

  
  

  the cell matrix is secreted by the cells and acts as a base for attachment.

  
  

  Cell junctions hold cells together, prevent flow of substances between cells, and provide for communication between cells.
• Evolution of Animals


  protozoans evolved before sponges.

  
  

  which evolved before placozoans.

  
  

  which evolved before jellyfish.

  
  

  which evolved before flatworms.
• BODY SYMMETRY


  In a bilaterally symmetrical organism, there is only one plane that can separate the

  organism into two equal halves.

  
  

  In a radially symmetrical organism, there are many planes that can separate the

  organism into two equal halves.

  
  

  In an asymmetrical organism, there are no planes that can separate the organism into

  two equal halves.
• The evolution of complexity evolved in the following order:


  multicellularity

  
  

  differentiation of cell, germ layers

  
  

  tissues

  
  

  organs

  
  

  body cavity

  
  

  segmentation and coeloms

  
  

  specialized segments.
• OXYGEN IN EVOLUTION


  played a critical role in the evolution of organisms because the size of cells that were dependent on oxygen gas in early environments was limited by low oxygen gas concentration.

  
  

  Larger cells have a lower membrane to volume ratio.

  
  

  Oxygen gas reached levels that could sustain large organism approximately 1.5 billion years ago.
• EARLY ANIMAL EVOLUTION


  Some early animals developed specialized cells to capture larger prey.

  
  

  Bacteria, algal mats, and protists were the food supply of early animals.

  
  

  Early animals may have been colonies of flagellated cells.

  
  

  Greater sized predators selected for greater sized prey which in turn selected for

  predators of even greater size.
• The following characteristics evolved to help animals escape predation:

  greater size

  
  

  shells

  
  

  burrowing behavior

  
  

  faster movement
• SPONGES


  are asymmetrical, sessile organisms.

  
  

  have specialized cells to perform different functions.

  
  

  may have a skeleton made of glass spicules or stone to discourage predators.
• CNIDARIANS (Jellyfish like animals)

  have a gastrovascular cavity.

  
  

  have stinging cells that are specialized for capturing prey.

  
  

  may have a polyp (nonmoving) stage, and a medusa (free swimming) stage.

  
  

  and contain a layer of nonliving mesoglia which enables them to reach a greater size without a great increase in nutritional need.
• FLATWORMS


  may be free living or parasitic.

  
  

  are flat because all of their cells must be near the body surface to get oxygen gas.

  
  

  Flatworm infections in people can be caused by ingesting foods contaminated with human feces.

  
  

  a secondary host that is necessary to complete the life cycle of a parasitic flatworm can increase the probability that the parasite will be ingested by its primary host.
• BODY CAVITIES


  Acoelomate organisms do not have a body cavity.

  
  

  Pseudocoelomate organisms have an unlined body cavity.

  
  

  Coelomate organisms have a membrane lined body cavity.
• SKELETONS


  Exoskeletons provide an organism with greater protection than endoskeletons.

  
  

  Endoskeletons have greater flexibility than exoskeletons.

  
  

  Hydrostatic skeletons evolved prior to exoskeletons and endoskeletons.
• PARASITES


  An intermediate host helps complete the life cycle of a parasite by increasing the

  probability that the parasite will be ingested by the host.

  
  

  A method used to rid a human population of a parasitic infection is to exterminate the intermediate host.

  
  

  Parasitic infections can be avoided through building good sewage systems.
• METAMORPHOSIS


  The larvae of a fruit fly are adapted to feeding.

  
  

  After metamorphosis, the fruit fly is adapted for reproduction.

  
  

  The larval stage of a frog takes advantage of an aquatic environment because the embryo would dry out on land.
• The Protostome Lineage


  Organs evolved into more efficient organ systems.

  
  

  Faster speeds of movement evolved as an adaptation to more efficiently escape predation and obtain food.

  
  

  From sessile organisms evolved descendants that actively expend energy to obtain food.

  
  

  Respiratory systems evolved as a more efficient adaptation than breathing through the skin.
• DEUTEROSTOMES


  Echinoderms, such as starfish, were able to survive above the ocean floor because they have a spiny dermal skeleton that protects them from predators.

  
  

  Arrow worms are small, tubular organisms that do not need a respiratory system because of their small size.

  
  

  Hemichordates, such as acorn worms, breath by pumping water through pharyngeal slits.

  
  

  The chordates, which include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, all have a

  nerve chord and a notochord, and pharyngeal slits.